-<p>This document is an unofficial reference manual for LaTeX, a
-document preparation system, version as of May 2011. It is
-intended to cover LaTeX2e, which has been the standard version of
-LaTeX for many years.
-</p>
-<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#About-this-document" accesskey="1">About this document</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Bug reporting, etc.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Overview" accesskey="2">Overview</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> What is LaTeX?
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Starting-_0026-ending" accesskey="3">Starting & ending</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> The standard beginning and end of a document.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Document-classes" accesskey="4">Document classes</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Some of the various classes available.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Typefaces" accesskey="5">Typefaces</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> And fonts, such as bold, italics etc.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Environments" accesskey="9">Environments</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Such as enumerate & itemize.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Footnotes">Footnotes</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> How to produce footnotes.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Define your own commands etc.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Counters">Counters</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Internal counters used by LaTeX.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> The length commands.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> How to create mathematical formulas.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Modes">Modes</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Paragraph, Math or LR modes.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Page-styles">Page styles</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Various styles of page layout.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Boxes">Boxes</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Making boxes.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Special-insertions">Special insertions</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Inserting reserved and special characters.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Dealing with big files by splitting.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cflushbottom" accesskey="3">\flushbottom</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Make all text pages the same height.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005craggedbottom" accesskey="4">\raggedbottom</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Allow text pages of differing height.
-<p>One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer
-the reader to them, as in “See Figure 3 for more details.”
-</p>
-<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005clabel" accesskey="1">\label</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Assign a symbolic name to a piece of text.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cpageref" accesskey="2">\pageref</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Refer to a page number.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cref" accesskey="3">\ref</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Refer to a section, figure or similar.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#displaymath" accesskey="5">displaymath</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Formulas that appear on their own line.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#theorem">theorem</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Theorems, lemmas, etc.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#titlepage">titlepage</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> For hand crafted title pages.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#verse">verse</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> For poetry and other things.
-<p>The <code>center</code> environment allows you to create a paragraph
-consisting of lines that are centered within the left and right
-margins on the current page. Each line is terminated with the
-string <code>\\</code>.
-</p>
-<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005ccentering" accesskey="1">\centering</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Declaration form of the <code>center</code> environment.
-<p>The <code>enumerate</code> environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations
-can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also
-be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as
-<code>itemize</code> (see <a href="#itemize">itemize</a>) and <code>description</code>
-(see <a href="#description">description</a>).
-</p>
-<a name="index-_005citem-1"></a>
-<p>Each item of an enumerated list begins with an <code>\item</code> command.
-There must be at least one <code>\item</code> command within the environment.
-</p>
-<p>By default, the numbering at each level is done like this:
-</p>
-<ol>
-<li> 1., 2., …
-</li><li> (a), (b), …
-</li><li> i., ii., …
-</li><li> A., B., …
-</li></ol>
-
-<a name="index-_005cenumi"></a>
-<a name="index-_005cenumii"></a>
-<a name="index-_005cenumiii"></a>
-<a name="index-_005cenumiv"></a>
-<p>The <code>enumerate</code> environment uses the counters <code>\enumi</code>
-through <code>\enumiv</code> counters (see <a href="#Counters">Counters</a>). If the optional
-argument to <code>\item</code> is given, the counter is not incremented for
-that item.
-</p>
-<a name="index-_005clabelenumi"></a>
-<a name="index-_005clabelenumii"></a>
-<a name="index-_005clabelenumiii"></a>
-<a name="index-_005clabelenumiv"></a>
-<p>The <code>enumerate</code> environment uses the commands <code>\labelenumi</code>
-through <code>\labelenumiv</code> to produce the default label. So, you can
-use <code>\renewcommand</code> to change the labels (see <a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a>). For instance, to have the first level use uppercase
-<p>The <code>flushleft</code> environment allows you to create a paragraph
-consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged
-right Each line must be terminated with the string <code>\\</code>.
-</p>
-<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005craggedright" accesskey="1">\raggedright</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Declaration form of the <code>flushleft</code> environment.
-<p>The <code>flushright</code> environment allows you to create a paragraph
-consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged
-left. Each line must be terminated with the string <code>\\</code>.
-</p>
-<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005craggedleft" accesskey="1">\raggedleft</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Declaration form of the <code>flushright</code> environment.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029" accesskey="2">\makebox (picture)</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Draw a box of the specified size.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029" accesskey="3">\framebox (picture)</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Draw a box with a frame around it.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cframe" accesskey="5">\frame</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Draw a frame around an object.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005clinethickness" accesskey="7">\linethickness</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Set the line thickness.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cthicklines" accesskey="8">\thicklines</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> A heavier line thickness.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cthinlines" accesskey="9">\thinlines</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> The default line thickness.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cmultiput">\multiput</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Draw multiple instances of an object.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005coval">\oval</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Draw an ellipse.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cput">\put</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Place an object at a specified place.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cshortstack">\shortstack</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Make a pile of objects.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cvector">\vector</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Draw a line with an arrow.
-<dd><p>Equivalent to <var>num</var> copies of <var>cols</var>, where <var>num</var> is a
-positive integer and <var>cols</var> is any list of column-specifiers,
-which may contain another <code>*-expression</code>.
-</p>
-</dd>
-</dl>
-</dd>
-</dl>
-
-<p>Parameters that control formatting:
-</p>
-<dl compact="compact">
-<dt><code>\arrayrulewidth</code>
-<a name="index-_005carrayrulewidth"></a>
-</dt>
-<dd><p>Thickness of the rule created by <code>|</code>, <code>\hline</code>, and
-<code>\vline</code> in the <code>tabular</code> and <code>array</code> environments; the
-default is ‘<samp>.4pt</samp>’.
-</p>
-</dd>
-<dt><code>\arraystretch</code>
-<a name="index-_005carraystretch"></a>
-</dt>
-<dd><p>Scaling of spacing between rows in the <code>tabular</code> and <code>array</code>
-environments; default is ‘<samp>1</samp>’, for no scaling.
-</p>
-</dd>
-<dt><code>\doublerulesep</code>
-<a name="index-_005cdoublerulesep"></a>
-</dt>
-<dd><p>Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by <code>||</code>
-in the <code>tabular</code> and <code>array</code> environments; default is ‘<samp>2pt</samp>’.
-</p>
-</dd>
-<dt><code>\tabcolsep</code>
-<a name="index-_005ctabcolsep"></a>
-</dt>
-<dd><p>Half the width of the space between columns; default is ‘<samp>6pt</samp>’.
-</p>
-</dd>
-</dl>
-
-<p>These commands can be used inside a <code>tabular</code> environment:
-</p>
-<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cmulticolumn" accesskey="1">\multicolumn</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Make an item spanning several columns.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005ccline" accesskey="2">\cline</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Draw a horizontal line spanning some columns.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005chline" accesskey="3">\hline</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Draw a horizontal line spanning all columns.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005ccite" accesskey="2">\cite</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Refer to a bibliography item.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cnocite" accesskey="3">\nocite</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Include an item in the bibliography.
-<p>The <code>verbatim</code> environment is a paragraph-making environment in
-which LaTeX produces exactly what you type in; for instance the
-<code>\</code> character produces a printed ‘<samp>\</samp>’. It turns LaTeX
-into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same
-effect that they would on a typewriter.
-</p>
-<p>The <code>verbatim</code> uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (<code>\tt</code>).
-</p>
-<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cverb" accesskey="1">\verb</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> The macro form of the <code>verbatim</code> environment.
-<p>The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to
-translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To
-produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines
-(and these lines must be broken into pages).
-</p>
-<p>LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking for you, but in
-some environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the
-<code>\\</code> command, and you can always manually force breaks.
-</p>
-<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005c_005c" accesskey="1">\\</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Start a new line.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cobeycr-_0026-_005crestorecr" accesskey="2">\obeycr & \restorecr</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Make each input line start a new output line.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cnewline" accesskey="3">\newline</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Break the line
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cfussy" accesskey="5">\fussy</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Be fussy about line breaking.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005csloppy" accesskey="6">\sloppy</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Be sloppy about line breaking.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005chyphenation" accesskey="7">\hyphenation</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Tell LaTeX how to hyphenate a word.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak" accesskey="8">\linebreak & \nolinebreak</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Forcing & avoiding line breaks.
-<p>LaTeX starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has
-accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically,
-but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks.
-</p>
-<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005ccleardoublepage" accesskey="1">\cleardoublepage</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Start a new right-hand page.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cclearpage" accesskey="2">\clearpage</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Start a new page.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cnewpage" accesskey="3">\newpage</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Start a new page.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cenlargethispage" accesskey="4">\enlargethispage</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Enlarge the current page a bit.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak" accesskey="5">\pagebreak & \nopagebreak</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Forcing & avoiding page breaks.
-<p>The <code>\fnsymbol</code> command produces a predefined series of symbols
-(see <a href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</a>). If you want to
-use a different symbol as your footnote mark, you’ll need to also
-<p>LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds.
-</p>
-
-<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand" accesskey="1">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> (Re)define a new command.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cnewcounter" accesskey="2">\newcounter</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Define a new counter.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cnewlength" accesskey="3">\newlength</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Define a new length.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cnewsavebox" accesskey="4">\newsavebox</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Define a new box.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment" accesskey="5">\newenvironment & \renewenvironment</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Define a new environment.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cnewtheorem" accesskey="6">\newtheorem</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Define a new theorem-like environment.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cnewfont" accesskey="7">\newfont</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Define a new font name.
-<p>Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with
-it. The name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment
-or command that produces the number, except with no <code>\</code>.
-(<code>enumi</code>–<code>enumiv</code> are used for the nested enumerate
-environment.) Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX’s
-standard document classes to control numbering.
-</p>
-<div class="example">
-<pre class="example">part paragraph figure enumi
-chapter subparagraph table enumii
-section page footnote enumiii
-subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv
-subsubsection
-</pre></div>
-
-<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol" accesskey="1">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Print value of a counter.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cusecounter" accesskey="2">\usecounter</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Use a specified counter in a list environment.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cvalue" accesskey="3">\value</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Use the value of a counter in an expression.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005csetcounter" accesskey="4">\setcounter</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Set the value of a counter.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005caddtocounter" accesskey="5">\addtocounter</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Add a quantity to a counter.
-<p>A <code>length</code> is a measure of distance. Many LaTeX commands take a
-length as an argument.
-</p>
-<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005csetlength" accesskey="1">\setlength</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Set the value of a length.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005caddtolength" accesskey="2">\addtolength</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Add a quantity to a length.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005csettodepth" accesskey="3">\settodepth</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Set a length to the depth of something.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005csettoheight" accesskey="4">\settoheight</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Set a length to the height of something.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005csettowidth" accesskey="5">\settowidth</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Set a length to the width of something.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cnoindent" accesskey="2">\noindent</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Do not indent this paragraph.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cparskip" accesskey="3">\parskip</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Space added before paragraphs.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Marginal-notes" accesskey="4">Marginal notes</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Putting remarks in the margin.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Subscripts-_0026-superscripts" accesskey="1">Subscripts & superscripts</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Also known as exponent or index.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Math-functions" accesskey="3">Math functions</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Math function names like sin and exp.
-<p>The <code>\documentclass</code> command determines the size and position of
-the page’s head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them.
-</p>
-<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle" accesskey="1">\maketitle</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Generate a title page.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cpagenumbering" accesskey="2">\pagenumbering</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Set the style used for page numbers.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cthispagestyle" accesskey="4">\thispagestyle</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Change the headings/footings style for this page.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cfbox-and-_005cframebox" accesskey="2">\fbox and \framebox</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Put a frame around a box.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#lrbox" accesskey="3">lrbox</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> An environment like \sbox.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cparbox" accesskey="5">\parbox</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Box with text in paragraph mode.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005csavebox" accesskey="7">\savebox</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Like \makebox, but save the text for later use.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005csbox" accesskey="8">\sbox</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Like \mbox, but save the text for later use.
-<p>A table of contents is produced with the <code>\tableofcontents</code>
-command. You put the command right where you want the table of
-contents to go; LaTeX does the rest for you. A previous run must
-have generated a ‘<tt>.toc</tt>’ file.
-</p>
-<p>The <code>\tableofcontents</code> command produces a heading, but it does
-not automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the
-table of contents, write a <code>\newpage</code> command after the
-<code>\tableofcontents</code> command.
-</p>
-<a name="index-_005clistoffigures"></a>
-<a name="index-_005clistoftables"></a>
-<p>The analogous commands <code>\listoffigures</code> and <code>\listoftables</code>
-produce a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively.
-Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents.
-</p>
-<a name="index-_005cnofiles"></a>
-<p>The command <code>\nofiles</code> overrides these commands, and
-<em>prevents</em> any of these lists from being generated.
-</p>
-<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005caddcontentsline" accesskey="1">\addcontentsline</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Add an entry to table of contents etc.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005caddtocontents" accesskey="2">\addtocontents</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Add text directly to table of contents file etc.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005cname" accesskey="7">\name</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Your name, for the return address.
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005ctypein" accesskey="1">\typein</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Read text from the terminal.
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#g_t_005ctypeout" accesskey="2">\typeout</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top"> Write text to the terminal.
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_0060see_0027-and-_0060see-also_0027-index-entries">‘see’ and ‘see also’ index entries</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Indexes">Indexes</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-accessing-any-character-of-a-font">accessing any character of a font</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-big-circle-symbols_002c-in-text">big circle symbols, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-black-boxes_002c-omitting">black boxes, omitting</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-commands_002c-defining-new-ones">commands, defining new ones</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-composite-word-mark_002c-in-text">composite word mark, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-counters_002c-a-list-of">counters, a list of</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-defining-a-new-command">defining a new command</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-defining-new-environments">defining new environments</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment">\newenvironment & \renewenvironment</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-defining-new-fonts">defining new fonts</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#g_t_005cnewfont">\newfont</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-defining-new-theorems">defining new theorems</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#g_t_005cnewtheorem">\newtheorem</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-displaying-quoted-text-with-paragraph-indentation">displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#quotation">quotation</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-displaying-quoted-text-without-paragraph-indentation">displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#quote">quote</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-document-class-options">document class options</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-double-right-quote">double right quote</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-double-spacing">double spacing</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-double-vertical-bar_002c-in-text">double vertical bar, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-ending-_0026-starting">ending & starting</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Starting-_0026-ending">Starting & ending</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-enlarge-current-page">enlarge current page</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#g_t_005cenlargethispage">\enlargethispage</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-flushing-floats-and-starting-a-page">flushing floats and starting a page</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#g_t_005cclearpage">\clearpage</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-font-commands_002c-low_002dlevel">font commands, low-level</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-greater-than-symbol_002c-in-text">greater than symbol, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-indentation-of-paragraphs_002c-in-minipage">indentation of paragraphs, in minipage</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-Knuth_002c-Donald-E_002e">Knuth, Donald E.</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-less-than-symbol_002c-in-text">less than symbol, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-line-breaks_002c-forcing">line breaks, forcing</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#g_t_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak">\linebreak & \nolinebreak</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-line-breaks_002c-preventing">line breaks, preventing</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#g_t_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak">\linebreak & \nolinebreak</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-lines-in-tables">lines in tables</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#tabular">tabular</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-lining-text-up-in-columns-using-tab-stops">lining text up in columns using tab stops</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-lining-text-up-in-tables">lining text up in tables</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#tabular">tabular</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-low_002d9-quotation-marks_002c-single-and-double">low-9 quotation marks, single and double</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-low_002dlevel-font-commands">low-level font commands</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-making-a-title-page">making a title page</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#titlepage">titlepage</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-math-mode_002c-spacing">math mode, spacing</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-notes-in-the-margin">notes in the margin</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Marginal-notes">Marginal notes</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-quoted-text-with-paragraph-indentation_002c-displaying">quoted text with paragraph indentation, displaying</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#quotation">quotation</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-quoted-text-without-paragraph-indentation_002c-displaying">quoted text without paragraph indentation, displaying</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#quote">quote</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-remarks-in-the-margin">remarks in the margin</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Marginal-notes">Marginal notes</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-reporting-bugs">reporting bugs</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-spacing-within-math-mode">spacing within math mode</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-Spanish-ordinals_002c-feminine-and-masculine">Spanish ordinals, feminine and masculine</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-splitting-the-input-file">splitting the input file</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-starting-_0026-ending">starting & ending</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Starting-_0026-ending">Starting & ending</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-starting-a-new-page">starting a new page</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#g_t_005cnewpage">\newpage</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-starting-a-new-page-and-clearing-floats">starting a new page and clearing floats</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#g_t_005cclearpage">\clearpage</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-starting-on-a-right_002dhand-page">starting on a right-hand page</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#g_t_005ccleardoublepage">\cleardoublepage</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-table-of-contents-entry_002c-manually-adding">table of contents entry, manually adding</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#g_t_005caddcontentsline">\addcontentsline</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-table-of-contents_002c-creating">table of contents, creating</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Tables-of-contents">Tables of contents</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-variables_002c-a-list-of">variables, a list of</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-vertical-bar_002c-double_002c-in-text">vertical bar, double, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-vertical-bar_002c-in-text">vertical bar, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-vertical-space-before-paragraphs">vertical space before paragraphs</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#g_t_005cparskip">\parskip</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-visible-space-symbol_002c-in-text">visible space symbol, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_005c_002c"><code>\,</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_005c_003a"><code>\:</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_005c_003b"><code>\;</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_005c_003e-1"><code>\></code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005caccent.html#g_t_005caccent" accesskey="1">\accent</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Low level command to produce an accented character.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox.html#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox" accesskey="2">\fbox & \framebox</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Put a frame around a box.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cparbox.html#g_t_005cparbox" accesskey="3">\parbox</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Box with text in paragraph mode.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox.html#g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox" accesskey="5">\sbox & \savebox</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Like <code>\makebox</code> but save the text for later.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="lrbox.html#lrbox" accesskey="6">lrbox</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Environment version of <code>\sbox</code>.
+<p>Like <code>\newcommand</code> (see <a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a>) but does
+not define <var>cmd</var>; instead it checks that the current definition of
+<var>cmd</var> is exactly as given by <var>definition</var> and is or is not
+<a name="index-long-command"></a>
+<em>long</em> as expected. A long command is a command that accepts
+<code>\par</code> within an argument. The <var>cmd</var> command is expected to be
+long with the unstarred version of <code>\CheckCommand</code>. Raises an
+error when the check fails. This allows you to check before you start
+redefining <code>cmd</code> yourself that no other package has already
+<p>Like <code>\newcommand</code> and <code>\newcommand*</code> (see <a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a>) but these declare a robust command, even if some code
+within the <var>definition</var> is fragile. (For a discussion of robust and
+fragile commands see <a href="_005cprotect.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>.) Use this command to define new
+robust commands or to redefine existing commands and make them
+robust. Unlike <code>\newcommand</code> these do not give an error if macro
+<var>cmd</var> already exists; instead, a log message is put into the
+transcript file if a command is redefined.
+</p>
+<p>Commands defined this way are a bit less efficient than those defined
+using <code>\newcommand</code> so unless the command’s data is fragile and the
+command is used within a moving argument, use <code>\newcommand</code>.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-etoolbox"></a>
+<a name="index-etoolbox-package"></a>
+<p>The <samp>etoolbox</samp> package offers the commands
+<code>\newrobustcmd</code>, <code>\newrobustcmd*</code>, as well as the commands
+<code>\renewrobustcmd</code>, <code>\renewrobustcmd*</code>, and the commands
+<code>\providerobustcmd</code>, and <code>\providerobustcmd*</code>. These are
+similar to <code>\newcommand</code>, <code>\newcommand*</code>,
+<code>\renewcommand</code>, <code>\renewcommand*</code>, <code>\providecommand</code>, and
+<code>\providecommand*</code>, but define a robust <var>cmd</var> with two
+advantages as compared to <code>\DeclareRobustCommand</code>:
+</p><ol>
+<li> They use the low-level e-TeX protection mechanism rather than the
+higher level LaTeX <code>\protect</code> mechanism, so they do not incur
+the slight loss of performance mentioned above, and
+</li><li> They make the same distinction between <code>\new…</code>,
+<code>\renew…</code>, and <code>\provide…</code>, as the standard
+commands, so they do not just make a log message when you redefine
+<var>cmd</var> that already exists, in that case you need to use either
+<code>\renew…</code> or <code>\provide…</code> or you get an error.
+<p>Load a package, like the command <code>\usepackage</code> (see <a href="Additional-packages.html#Additional-packages">Additional packages</a>). The LaTeX development team strongly recommends use of
+these commands over Plain TeX’s <code>\input</code>; see the Class
+<p>Inside of a class or package file you can use the at-sign <code>@</code> as a
+character in command names without having to surround the code
+containing that command with <code>\makeatletter</code> and
+<code>\makeatother</code>. See <a href="_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother.html#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother">\makeatletter & \makeatother</a>. This allow
+you to create commands that users will not accidentally redefine.
+Another technique is to preface class- or package-specific commands with
+some string to prevent your class or package from interfering with
+others. For instance, the class <code>smcmemo</code> might have commands
+<code>\smc@tolist</code>, <code>\smc@fromlist</code>, etc.
+</p>
+
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Class-and-package-structure.html#Class-and-package-structure" accesskey="1">Class and package structure</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Layout of the file.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Class-and-package-commands.html#Class-and-package-commands" accesskey="2">Class and package commands</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">List of commands.
+<p>You can add color to text, rules, etc. You can also have color in a box
+or on an entire page and write text on top of it.
+</p>
+<p>Color support comes as an additional package. So put
+<code>\usepackage{color}</code> in your document preamble to use the
+commands described here.
+</p>
+<p>Many other packages also supplement LaTeX’s color abilities.
+Particularly worth mentioning is <samp>xcolor</samp>, which is widely used and
+significantly extends the capabilities described here, including adding
+‘<samp>HTML</samp>’ and ‘<samp>Hsb</samp>’ color models.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Color-package-options.html#Color-package-options" accesskey="1">Color package options</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Options when you load the standard package.
+<p>makes a cyan-colored box that is five centimeters long and gets its
+depth and height from the <code>\strut</code> (so the depth is
+<code>-.3\baselineskip</code> and the height is <code>\baselineskip</code>). This
+puts white text on a blue background.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\colorbox{blue}{\textcolor{white}{Welcome to the machine.}}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>The <code>\fcolorbox</code> commands use the same parameters as <code>\fbox</code>
+(see <a href="_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox.html#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox & \framebox</a>), <code>\fboxrule</code> and <code>\fboxsep</code>, to
+set the thickness of the rule and the boundary between the box interior
+and the surrounding rule. LaTeX’s defaults are <code>0.4pt</code> and
+<code>3pt</code>, respectively.
+</p>
+<p>This example changes the thickness of the border to 0.8 points. Note
+that it is surrounded by curly braces so that the change ends at the end
+Note that <samp>.tex</samp> is the default file extension.
+</p>
+<p>pdfTeX is a development of the original TeX program, as are
+XeTeX and LuaTeX (see <a href="TeX-engines.html#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a>). They are completely
+backward compatible. But the original program had a custom output
+format, DVI, while the newer ones can output directly to PDF. This
+allows them to take advantage of the extra features in PDF such as
+hyperlinks, support for modern image formats such as JPG and PNG, and
+ubiquitous viewing programs. In short, if you run <code>pdflatex</code> or
+<code>xelatex</code> or <code>lualatex</code> then you will by default get PDF
+and have access to all its modern features. If you run <code>latex</code>,
+or <code>dvilualatex</code>, then you will get DVI. The description here
+assumes pdfLaTeX.
+</p>
+<p>See <a href="Command-line-options.html#Command-line-options">Command line options</a>, for a selection of the most useful
+command line options. As to <var>argument</var>, the usual case is that it
+does not begin with a backslash, so the system takes it to be the name
+of a file and it compiles that file. If <var>argument</var> begins with a
+backslash then the system will interpret it as a line of LaTeX
+input, which can be used for special effects (see <a href="Command-line-input.html#Command-line-input">Command line input</a>).
+</p>
+<p>If you gave no arguments or options then <code>pdflatex</code> prompts for
+input from the terminal. You can escape from this by entering
+<code><control>-D</code>.
+</p>
+<p>If LaTeX finds an error in your document then by default it stops and
+asks you about it. See <a href="Recovering-from-errors.html#Recovering-from-errors">Recovering from errors</a> for an outline of what
+to do.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Command-line-options.html#Command-line-options" accesskey="1">Command line options</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Read text from the terminal.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Command-line-input.html#Command-line-input" accesskey="2">Command line input</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Write text to the terminal.
+<p>These are the commands available with the <samp>color</samp> package.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Define-colors.html#Define-colors" accesskey="1">Define colors</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Give a color a name.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Colored-text.html#Colored-text" accesskey="2">Colored text</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Text or rules in color.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Colored-boxes.html#Colored-boxes" accesskey="3">Colored boxes</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">A box of color, to write over.
+<p>These are the commands available with the <samp>graphics</samp> and
+<samp>graphicx</samp> packages.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cincludegraphics.html#g_t_005cincludegraphics" accesskey="1">\includegraphics</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Using a graphic in your document.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cresizebox.html#g_t_005cresizebox" accesskey="4">\resizebox</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Scaling boxes, including graphics, to a set size.
+<p>Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with
+it. The name of the counter is often the same as the name of the
+environment or command associated with the number, except that the
+counter’s name has no backslash <code>\</code>. Thus, associated with
+the <code>\chapter</code> command is the <code>chapter</code> counter that keeps
+track of the chapter number.
+</p>
+<p>Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX’s standard document
+classes to control numbering.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">part paragraph figure enumi
+chapter subparagraph table enumii
+section page footnote enumiii
+subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv
+subsubsection
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>The <code>mpfootnote</code> counter is used by the <code>\footnote</code> command
+inside of a minipage (see <a href="minipage.html#minipage">minipage</a>). The counters <code>enumi</code>
+through <code>enumiv</code> are used in the <code>enumerate</code> environment, for
+up to four levels of nesting (see <a href="enumerate.html#enumerate">enumerate</a>).
+</p>
+<p>Counters can have any integer value but they are typically positive.
+</p>
+<p>New counters are created with <code>\newcounter</code>. See <a href="_005cnewcounter.html#g_t_005cnewcounter">\newcounter</a>.
+</p>
+
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol.html#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol" accesskey="1">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Print value of a counter.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cusecounter.html#g_t_005cusecounter" accesskey="2">\usecounter</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Use a specified counter in a list environment.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cvalue.html#g_t_005cvalue" accesskey="3">\value</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Use the value of a counter in an expression.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005csetcounter.html#g_t_005csetcounter" accesskey="4">\setcounter</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Set the value of a counter.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005caddtocounter.html#g_t_005caddtocounter" accesskey="5">\addtocounter</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Add a quantity to a counter.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005crefstepcounter.html#g_t_005crefstepcounter" accesskey="6">\refstepcounter</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Add to a counter.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cstepcounter.html#g_t_005cstepcounter" accesskey="7">\stepcounter</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Add to a counter, resetting subsidiary counters.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear.html#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear" accesskey="8">\day & \month & \year</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Numeric date values.
+cross referencing features. You can arrange that if you enter
+<code>\begin{thm}\label{th:Nerode}...\end{thm}</code> then
+<code>\cref{th:Nerode}</code> will output ‘<samp>Theorem 3.21</samp>’, without you
+having to enter the “Theorem.”
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005clabel.html#g_t_005clabel" accesskey="1">\label</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Assign a symbolic name to a piece of text.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cpageref.html#g_t_005cpageref" accesskey="2">\pageref</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Refer to a page number.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cref.html#g_t_005cref" accesskey="3">\ref</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Refer to a section, figure or similar.
+<p>LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand" accesskey="1">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">(Re)define a new command.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cprovidecommand.html#g_t_005cprovidecommand" accesskey="2">\providecommand</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Define a new command, if name not used.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother.html#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother" accesskey="3">\makeatletter & \makeatother</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Change the status of the at-sign character.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005c_0040ifstar.html#g_t_005c_0040ifstar" accesskey="4">\@ifstar</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Define your own commands with *-variants.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cnewcounter.html#g_t_005cnewcounter" accesskey="5">\newcounter</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Define a new counter.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cnewlength.html#g_t_005cnewlength" accesskey="6">\newlength</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Define a new length.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cnewsavebox.html#g_t_005cnewsavebox" accesskey="7">\newsavebox</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Define a new box.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment.html#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment" accesskey="8">\newenvironment & \renewenvironment</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Define a new environment.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cnewtheorem.html#g_t_005cnewtheorem" accesskey="9">\newtheorem</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Define a new theorem-like environment.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cnewfont.html#g_t_005cnewfont">\newfont</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Define a new font name.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Class-and-package-construction.html#Class-and-package-construction" accesskey="3">Class and package construction</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Create new classes and packages.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="displaymath.html#displaymath" accesskey="5">displaymath</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Formulas that appear on their own line.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="tabular.html#tabular">tabular</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Align text in columns.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="thebibliography.html#thebibliography">thebibliography</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Bibliography or reference list.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="theorem.html#theorem">theorem</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Theorems, lemmas, etc.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="titlepage.html#titlepage">titlepage</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">For hand crafted title pages.
+<p>The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX.
+The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font
+size used (in points) with the ‘<samp>10pt</samp>’, ‘<samp>11pt</samp>’, and
+‘<samp>12pt</samp>’ document size options, respectively (see <a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>).
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Table-of-contents-etc_002e.html#Table-of-contents-etc_002e" accesskey="1">Table of contents etc.</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Indexes.html#Indexes" accesskey="2">Indexes</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Generate an index.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Glossaries.html#Glossaries" accesskey="3">Glossaries</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Generate a glossary.
+<p>The <samp>glossaries</samp> package allows you to make glossaries, including
+multiple glossaries, as well as lists of acronyms.
+</p>
+<p>To get the output from this example, compile the document (for instance
+with <code>pdflatex filename</code>), then run the command line command
+<code>makeglossaries filename</code>, and then compile the document again.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\documentclass{...}
+\usepackage{glossaries} \makeglossaries
+\newglossaryentry{tm}{%
+ name={Turing machine},
+ description={A model of a machine that computes. The model is simple
+ but can compute anything any existing device can compute.
+ It is the standard model used in Computer Science.},
+ }
+\begin{document}
+Everything begins with the definition of a \gls{tm}.
+ ...
+\printglossaries
+\end{document}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>That gives two things. In the main text it outputs ‘<samp>... definition
+of a Turing machine</samp>’. In addition, in a separate sectional unit headed
+‘<samp>Glossary</samp>’ there appears a description list. In boldface it says
+‘<samp>Turing machine</samp>’ and the rest of the item says in normal type
+‘<samp>A model of a machine … Computer Science</samp>’.
+</p>
+<a name="index-_005cmakeglossary-1"></a>
+<a name="index-_005cprintglossaries-1"></a>
+<a name="index-_002eglo-file"></a>
+<p>The command <code>\makeglossary</code> opens the file that will contain the
+entry information, <samp><var>root-file</var>.glo</samp>. Put the
+<code>\printglossaries</code> command where you want the glossaries to appear
+in your document.
+</p>
+<p>The <samp>glossaries</samp> package is very powerful. For instance, besides
+the commands <code>\newglossaryentry</code> and <code>\gls</code>, there are similar
+commands for a list of acronyms. See the package documentations on
+CTAN.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cnewglossaryentry.html#g_t_005cnewglossaryentry" accesskey="1">\newglossaryentry</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Declare the content of a glossary entry.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cgls.html#g_t_005cgls" accesskey="2">\gls</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Give a page reference for a glossary entry.
+<p>These commands configure the way LaTeX searches the file system for
+the graphic.
+</p>
+<p>The behavior of file system search code is necessarily platform
+dependent. In this document we cover GNU/Linux, Macintosh, and Windows, as
+those systems are typically configured. For other situations consult
+the documentation in <samp>grfguide.pdf</samp>, or the LaTeX source, or your
+TeX distribution’s documentation.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cgraphicspath.html#g_t_005cgraphicspath" accesskey="1">\graphicspath</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Directories to search.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions.html#g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions" accesskey="2">\DeclareGraphicsExtensions</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">File types, such as JPG or EPS.
+<p>You can use graphics such as PNG or PDF files in your LaTeX document.
+You need an additional package, which comes standard with LaTeX.
+This example is the short how-to.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\include{graphicx} % goes in the preamble
+ ...
+\includegraphics[width=0.5\linewidth]{plot.pdf}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>To use the commands described here your document preamble must contain
+either <code>\usepackage{graphicx}</code> or
+<code>\usepackage{graphics}</code>. Most of the time, <samp>graphicx</samp> is the
+better choice.
+</p>
+<p>Graphics come in two main types, raster and vector. LaTeX can use
+both. In raster graphics the file contains an entry for each location
+in an array, describing what color it is. An example is a photograph,
+in JPG format. In vector graphics, the file contains a list of
+instructions such as ‘<samp>draw a circle with this radius and that
+center</samp>’. An example is a line drawing produced by the Asymptote
+program, in PDF format. Generally vector graphics are more useful
+because you can rescale their size without pixelation or other problems,
+and because they often have a smaller size.
+</p>
+<p>There are systems particularly well-suited to make graphics for a
+LaTeX document. For example, these allow you to use the same fonts
+as in your document. LaTeX comes with a <code>picture</code> environment
+(see <a href="picture.html#picture">picture</a>) that has simple capabilities. Besides that, there are
+other ways to include the graphic-making commands in the document. Two
+such systems are the PSTricks and TikZ packages. There are also systems
+external to LaTeX, that generate a graphic that you include using the
+commands of this chapter. Two that use a programming language are
+Asymptote and MetaPost. One that uses a graphical interface is Xfig.
+Full description of these systems is outside the scope of this document;
+see their documentation on CTAN.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Graphics-package-options.html#Graphics-package-options" accesskey="1">Graphics package options</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Options when you load the package.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Graphics-package-configuration.html#Graphics-package-configuration" accesskey="2">Graphics package configuration</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Where to look for files, which file types.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Commands-for-graphics.html#Commands-for-graphics" accesskey="3">Commands for graphics</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The available commands.
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Recovering-from-errors.html#index-_002a-prompt">‘<samp>*</samp>’ prompt</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Recovering-from-errors.html#Recovering-from-errors">Recovering from errors</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment.html#index-_002a_002dform-of-environment-commands"><code>*</code>-form of environment commands</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment.html#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment">\newenvironment & \renewenvironment</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Sectioning.html#index-_002a_002dform-of-sectioning-commands"><code>*</code>-form of sectioning commands</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#index-_002a_002dform_002c-defining-new-commands">*-form, defining new commands</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#index-_003a">:</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character & \colon</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#index-_003a-1"><code>:</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character & \colon</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-_005c_0021"><code>\!</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-_005c_002c"><code>\,</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-_005c_003a"><code>\:</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-_005c_003b"><code>\;</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-_005c_003e-1"><code>\></code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#index-_005cbackmatter"><code>\backmatter</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#index-_005cbigskip"><code>\bigskip</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#index-_005cbigskipamount"><code>\bigskipamount</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#index-_005ccolon"><code>\colon</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character & \colon</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear.html#index-_005cday"><code>\day</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear.html#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear">\day & \month & \year</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad.html#index-_005censpace"><code>\enspace</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad.html#g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad">\enspace & \quad & \qquad</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#index-_005cfrontmatter"><code>\frontmatter</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#index-_005cmainmatter"><code>\mainmatter</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox.html#index-_005cmakebox"><code>\makebox</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox.html#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox & \makebox</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#index-_005cmedskip"><code>\medskip</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#index-_005cmedskipamount"><code>\medskipamount</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-_005cmedspace"><code>\medspace</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear.html#index-_005cmonth"><code>\month</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear.html#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear">\day & \month & \year</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-_005cnegthinspace"><code>\negthinspace</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace.html#index-_005cnegthinspace-1"><code>\negthinspace</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace.html#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">\thinspace & \negthinspace</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#index-_005cparagraph-1"><code>\paragraph</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-_005cqquad"><code>\qquad</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad.html#index-_005cqquad-1"><code>\qquad</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad.html#g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad">\enspace & \quad & \qquad</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-_005cquad"><code>\quad</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad.html#index-_005cquad-1"><code>\quad</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad.html#g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad">\enspace & \quad & \qquad</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#index-_005csmallskip"><code>\smallskip</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#index-_005csmallskipamount"><code>\smallskipamount</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#index-_005csubparagraph-1"><code>\subparagraph</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#index-_005csubsubsection"><code>\subsubsection</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Symbols-by-font-position.html#index-_005csymbol"><code>\symbol</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Symbols-by-font-position.html#Symbols-by-font-position">Symbols by font position</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-_005cthickspace"><code>\thickspace</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-_005cthinspace"><code>\thinspace</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace.html#index-_005cthinspace-1"><code>\thinspace</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace.html#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">\thinspace & \negthinspace</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear.html#index-_005cyear"><code>\year</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear.html#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear">\day & \month & \year</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cindex.html#index-_0060see_0027-and-_0060see-also_0027-index-entries">‘see’ and ‘see also’ index entries</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cindex.html#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Symbols-by-font-position.html#index-accessing-any-character-of-a-font">accessing any character of a font</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Symbols-by-font-position.html#Symbols-by-font-position">Symbols by font position</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Glossaries.html#index-acronyms_002c-list-of">acronyms, list of</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Glossaries.html#Glossaries">Glossaries</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#index-amsmath-package-10"><code>amsmath</code> <span class="roman">package</span></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#index-amsmath-package-11"><code>amsmath</code> <span class="roman">package</span></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character & \colon</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#index-amsmath-package-12"><code>amsmath</code> <span class="roman">package</span></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character & \colon</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewfont.html#index-at-clause_002c-in-font-definitions">at clause, in font definitions</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewfont.html#g_t_005cnewfont">\newfont</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Overview.html#index-basics-of-LaTeX">basics of LaTeX</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Overview.html#Overview">Overview</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="beamer-template.html#index-beamer-template-and-class"><code>beamer</code> template and class</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="beamer-template.html#beamer-template">beamer template</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cAtBeginDocument.html#index-beginning-of-document-hook">beginning of document hook</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cAtBeginDocument.html#g_t_005cAtBeginDocument">\AtBeginDocument</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#index-bibliography-format_002c-open">bibliography format, open</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#index-big-circle-symbols_002c-in-text">big circle symbols, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Units-of-length.html#index-Big-point">Big point</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Units-of-length.html#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Footnotes-of-footnotes.html#index-bigfoot-package"><code>bigfoot</code> <span class="roman">package</span></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Footnotes-of-footnotes.html#Footnotes-of-footnotes">Footnotes of footnotes</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#index-black-boxes_002c-omitting">black boxes, omitting</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#index-book_002c-back-matter">book, back matter</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#index-book_002c-end-matter">book, end matter</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#index-book_002c-front-matter">book, front matter</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#index-book_002c-main-matter">book, main matter</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother.html#index-character-category-code">character category code</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother.html#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother">\makeatletter & \makeatother</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#index-character_002c-invisible">character, invisible</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Upper-and-lower-case.html#index-characters_002c-case-of">characters, case of</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Upper-and-lower-case.html#Upper-and-lower-case">Upper and lower case</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Additional-Latin-letters.html#index-characters_002c-non_002dEnglish">characters, non-English</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Additional-Latin-letters.html#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#index-colon-character">colon character</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character & \colon</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-commands.html#index-commands_002c-class-and-package">commands, class and package</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-commands.html#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#index-commands_002c-defining-new-ones">commands, defining new ones</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cprovidecommand.html#index-commands_002c-defining-new-ones-1">commands, defining new ones</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cprovidecommand.html#g_t_005cprovidecommand">\providecommand</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-construction.html#index-commands_002c-document-class">commands, document class</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-construction.html#Class-and-package-construction">Class and package construction</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Commands-for-graphics.html#index-commands_002c-graphics-package">commands, graphics package</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Commands-for-graphics.html#Commands-for-graphics">Commands for graphics</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend.html#index-commands_002c-ignore-spaces">commands, ignore spaces</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend.html#g_t_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend">\ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#index-commands_002c-redefining">commands, redefining</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cwrite18.html#index-commands_002c-run-from-LaTeX">commands, run from LaTeX</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cwrite18.html#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#index-composite-word-mark_002c-in-text">composite word mark, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Counters.html#index-counters_002c-a-list-of">counters, a list of</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Counters.html#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#index-defining-a-new-command">defining a new command</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cprovidecommand.html#index-defining-a-new-command-1">defining a new command</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cprovidecommand.html#g_t_005cprovidecommand">\providecommand</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment.html#index-defining-new-environments">defining new environments</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment.html#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment">\newenvironment & \renewenvironment</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewfont.html#index-defining-new-fonts">defining new fonts</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewfont.html#g_t_005cnewfont">\newfont</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewtheorem.html#index-defining-new-theorems">defining new theorems</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewtheorem.html#g_t_005cnewtheorem">\newtheorem</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewfont.html#index-design-size_002c-in-font-definitions">design size, in font definitions</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewfont.html#g_t_005cnewfont">\newfont</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Units-of-length.html#index-Didot-point">Didot point</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Units-of-length.html#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-construction.html#index-difference-between-class-and-package">difference between class and package</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-construction.html#Class-and-package-construction">Class and package construction</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Modes.html#index-display-math-mode">display math mode</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Modes.html#Modes">Modes</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="quotation-_0026-quote.html#index-displaying-quoted-text-with-paragraph-indentation">displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="quotation-_0026-quote.html#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation & quote</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="quotation-_0026-quote.html#index-displaying-quoted-text-without-paragraph-indentation">displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="quotation-_0026-quote.html#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation & quote</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-construction.html#index-document-class-commands">document class commands</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-construction.html#Class-and-package-construction">Class and package construction</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#index-document-class-options">document class options</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Starting-and-ending.html#index-document-class_002c-defined">document class, defined</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Starting-and-ending.html#Starting-and-ending">Starting and ending</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#index-double-right-quote">double right quote</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#index-double-spacing">double spacing</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#index-double-vertical-bar_002c-in-text">double vertical bar, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cAtEndDocument.html#index-end-of-document-hook">end of document hook</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cAtEndDocument.html#g_t_005cAtEndDocument">\AtEndDocument</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Starting-and-ending.html#index-ending-and-starting">ending and starting</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Starting-and-ending.html#Starting-and-ending">Starting and ending</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#index-equation-numbers_002c-left-vs_002e-right">equation numbers, left vs. right</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#index-equations_002c-flush-left-vs_002e-centered">equations, flush left vs. centered</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Additional-Latin-letters.html#index-es_002dzet-German-letter">es-zet German letter</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Additional-Latin-letters.html#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#index-families_002c-of-fonts">families, of fonts</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#index-flush-left-equations">flush left equations</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage.html#index-flushing-floats-and-starting-a-page">flushing floats and starting a page</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage.html#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage">\clearpage & \cleardoublepage</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Symbols-by-font-position.html#index-font-symbols_002c-by-number">font symbols, by number</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Symbols-by-font-position.html#Symbols-by-font-position">Symbols by font position</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Footnotes-in-a-table.html#index-footnote_002c-in-a-table">footnote, in a table</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Footnotes-in-a-table.html#Footnotes-in-a-table">Footnotes in a table</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Footnotes-in-section-headings.html#index-footnote_002c-in-section-headings">footnote, in section headings</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Footnotes-in-section-headings.html#Footnotes-in-section-headings">Footnotes in section headings</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Footnotes-of-footnotes.html#index-footnote_002c-of-a-footnote">footnote, of a footnote</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Footnotes-of-footnotes.html#Footnotes-of-footnotes">Footnotes of footnotes</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="minipage.html#index-footnotes-in-figures">footnotes in figures</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="minipage.html#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfootnote.html#index-Footnotes_002c-in-a-minipage">Footnotes, in a minipage</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfootnote.html#g_t_005cfootnote">\footnote</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfootnote.html#index-footnotes_002c-symbols-instead-of-numbers">footnotes, symbols instead of numbers</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfootnote.html#g_t_005cfootnote">\footnote</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox.html#index-frame-rule-width"><code>frame rule width</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox.html#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox & \framebox</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox.html#index-frame_002c-line-width"><code>frame, line width</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox.html#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox & \framebox</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox.html#index-frame_002c-separation-from-contents"><code>frame, separation from contents</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox.html#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox & \framebox</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#index-greater-than-symbol_002c-in-text">greater than symbol, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="About-this-document.html#index-home-page-for-manual">home page for manual</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="About-this-document.html#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#index-horizontal-spacing">horizontal spacing</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent.html#index-indent_002c-forcing">indent, forcing</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent.html#g_t_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent">\indent & \noindent</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="minipage.html#index-indentation-of-paragraphs_002c-in-minipage">indentation of paragraphs, in minipage</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="minipage.html#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Splitting-the-input.html#index-input-file">input file</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Splitting-the-input.html#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Command-line-input.html#index-input_002c-on-command-line">input, on command line</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Command-line-input.html#Command-line-input">Command line input</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Special-insertions.html#index-insertions-of-special-characters">insertions of special characters</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Special-insertions.html#Special-insertions">Special insertions</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#index-invisible-character">invisible character</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="About-this-document.html#index-LaTeX-Project-team">LaTeX Project team</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="About-this-document.html#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="About-this-document.html#index-LaTeX-vs_002e-LaTeX2e">LaTeX vs. LaTeX2e</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="About-this-document.html#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="About-this-document.html#index-latex_002ddoc_002dptr-document"><code>latex-doc-ptr <span class="roman">document</span></code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="About-this-document.html#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#index-leqno-option"><code>leqno <span class="roman">option</span></code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#index-less-than-symbol_002c-in-text">less than symbol, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="tabular.html#index-lining-text-up-in-tables">lining text up in tables</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="tabular.html#tabular">tabular</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="tabbing.html#index-lining-text-up-using-tab-stops">lining text up using tab stops</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="tabbing.html#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-commands.html#index-long-command">long command</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-commands.html#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#index-low_002d9-quotation-marks_002c-single-and-double">low-9 quotation marks, single and double</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#index-low_002dlevel-font-commands">low-level font commands</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Upper-and-lower-case.html#index-lowercase">lowercase</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Upper-and-lower-case.html#Upper-and-lower-case">Upper and lower case</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox.html#index-make-a-box">make a box</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox.html#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox & \makebox</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="titlepage.html#index-making-a-title-page">making a title page</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="titlepage.html#titlepage">titlepage</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-math-mode_002c-spacing">math mode, spacing</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#index-math-mode_002c-spacing-1">math mode, spacing</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Units-of-length.html#index-mu"><code>mu</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Units-of-length.html#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Units-of-length.html#index-mu_002c-math-unit">mu, math unit</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Units-of-length.html#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly.html#index-nested-_005cinclude_002c-not-allowed">nested <code>\include</code>, not allowed</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly.html#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly">\include & \includeonly</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-construction.html#index-new-class-commands">new class commands</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-construction.html#Class-and-package-construction">Class and package construction</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-commands.html#index-new-command_002c-check">new command, check</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-commands.html#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-commands.html#index-new-command_002c-definition">new command, definition</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Class-and-package-commands.html#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#index-new-commands_002c-defining">new commands, defining</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Additional-Latin-letters.html#index-non_002dEnglish-characters">non-English characters</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Additional-Latin-letters.html#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Marginal-notes.html#index-notes-in-the-margin">notes in the margin</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Marginal-notes.html#Marginal-notes">Marginal notes</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#index-notitlepage-option"><code>notitlepage <span class="roman">option</span></code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cleft-_0026-_005cright.html#index-null-delimiter">null delimiter</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cleft-_0026-_005cright.html#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">\left & \right</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#index-onecolumn-option"><code>onecolumn <span class="roman">option</span></code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#index-oneside-option"><code>oneside <span class="roman">option</span></code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout.html#index-open-a-file">open a file</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout.html#g_t_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout">\openin & \openout</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#index-openany-option"><code>openany <span class="roman">option</span></code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#index-openbib-option"><code>openbib <span class="roman">option</span></code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#index-package_002c-amsmath-10"><span class="roman">package</span>, <code>amsmath</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#index-package_002c-amsmath-11"><span class="roman">package</span>, <code>amsmath</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character & \colon</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#index-package_002c-amsmath-12"><span class="roman">package</span>, <code>amsmath</code></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character & \colon</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#index-paragraph-1">paragraph</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip.html#index-paragraph-indentation">paragraph indentation</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip.html#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip">\parindent & \parskip</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="minipage.html#index-paragraph-indentation_002c-in-minipage">paragraph indentation, in minipage</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="minipage.html#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="quotation-_0026-quote.html#index-paragraph-indentations-in-quoted-text">paragraph indentations in quoted text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="quotation-_0026-quote.html#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation & quote</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="quotation-_0026-quote.html#index-paragraph-indentations-in-quoted-text_002c-omitting">paragraph indentations in quoted text, omitting</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="quotation-_0026-quote.html#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation & quote</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cparbox.html#index-paragraph_002c-in-a-box">paragraph, in a box</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cparbox.html#g_t_005cparbox">\parbox</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-quad">quad</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="quotation-_0026-quote.html#index-quoted-text-with-paragraph-indentation_002c-displaying">quoted text with paragraph indentation, displaying</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="quotation-_0026-quote.html#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation & quote</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="quotation-_0026-quote.html#index-quoted-text-without-paragraph-indentation_002c-displaying">quoted text without paragraph indentation, displaying</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="quotation-_0026-quote.html#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation & quote</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cstackrel.html#index-relation_002c-text-above">relation, text above</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cstackrel.html#g_t_005cstackrel">\stackrel</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Marginal-notes.html#index-remarks-in-the-margin">remarks in the margin</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Marginal-notes.html#Marginal-notes">Marginal notes</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#index-series_002c-of-fonts">series, of fonts</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#index-setspace-package"><code>setspace</code> <span class="roman">package</span></a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#index-shapes_002c-of-fonts">shapes, of fonts</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Additional-Latin-letters.html#index-sharp-S-letters">sharp S letters</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Additional-Latin-letters.html#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend.html#index-spaces_002c-ignore-around-commands">spaces, ignore around commands</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend.html#g_t_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend">\ignorespaces & \ignorespacesafterend</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-spacing-within-math-mode">spacing within math mode</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#index-spacing_002c-math-mode">spacing, math mode</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#index-Spanish-ordinals_002c-feminine-and-masculine">Spanish ordinals, feminine and masculine</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Splitting-the-input.html#index-splitting-the-input-file">splitting the input file</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Splitting-the-input.html#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#index-starred-form_002c-defining-new-commands">starred form, defining new commands</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewpage.html#index-starting-a-new-page">starting a new page</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cnewpage.html#g_t_005cnewpage">\newpage</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage.html#index-starting-a-new-page-and-clearing-floats">starting a new page and clearing floats</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage.html#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage">\clearpage & \cleardoublepage</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Starting-and-ending.html#index-starting-and-ending">starting and ending</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Starting-and-ending.html#Starting-and-ending">Starting and ending</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage.html#index-starting-on-a-right_002dhand-page">starting on a right-hand page</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage.html#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage">\clearpage & \cleardoublepage</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#index-subparagraph-1">subparagraph</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Subscripts-_0026-superscripts.html#index-subscript">subscript</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Subscripts-_0026-superscripts.html#Subscripts-_0026-superscripts">Subscripts & superscripts</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#index-subsubsection">subsubsection</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Subscripts-_0026-superscripts.html#index-superscript">superscript</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Subscripts-_0026-superscripts.html#Subscripts-_0026-superscripts">Subscripts & superscripts</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-thin-space">thin space</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace.html#index-thin-space-1">thin space</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace.html#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">\thinspace & \negthinspace</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#index-thin-space_002c-negative">thin space, negative</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace.html#index-thin-space_002c-negative-1">thin space, negative</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace.html#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">\thinspace & \negthinspace</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Additional-Latin-letters.html#index-thorn_002c-Icelandic-letter">thorn, Icelandic letter</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Additional-Latin-letters.html#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#index-tilde_002c-ASCII_002c-in-text">tilde, ASCII, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#index-title-page_002c-separate-or-run_002din">title page, separate or run-in</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Units-of-length.html#index-units_002c-of-length">units, of length</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Units-of-length.html#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="About-this-document.html#index-unofficial-nature-of-this-manual">unofficial nature of this manual</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="About-this-document.html#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Counters.html#index-variables_002c-a-list-of">variables, a list of</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Counters.html#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#index-vertical-bar_002c-double_002c-in-text">vertical bar, double, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#index-vertical-bar_002c-in-text">vertical bar, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip.html#index-vertical-space-before-paragraphs">vertical space before paragraphs</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip.html#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip">\parindent & \parskip</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#index-vertical-spacing">vertical spacing</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="_005csmash.html#index-vertical-spacing_002c-math-mode">vertical spacing, math mode</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="_005csmash.html#g_t_005csmash">\smash</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#index-visible-space-symbol_002c-in-text">visible space symbol, in text</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Text-symbols.html#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#index-weights_002c-of-fonts">weights, of fonts</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#index-widths_002c-of-fonts">widths, of fonts</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
+<p>LaTeX uses the ability to write to a file and later read it back in
+to build document components such as a table of contents or index. You
+can also read a file that other programs written, or write a file for
+others to read. You can communicate with users through the terminal.
+And, you can issue instructions for the operating system.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout.html#g_t_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout" accesskey="1">\openin & \openout</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Open a file.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cread.html#g_t_005cread" accesskey="2">\read</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Read text from a file.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005ctypein.html#g_t_005ctypein" accesskey="3">\typein</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Read text from the terminal.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005ctypeout.html#g_t_005ctypeout" accesskey="4">\typeout</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Write text to the terminal.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cwrite.html#g_t_005cwrite" accesskey="5">\write</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Write text to a file or terminal.
+<p>In the LaTeX input file, a command name starts with a backslash
+character, <code>\</code>. The name itself then consists of either
+(a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter.
+</p>
+<p>LaTeX commands names are case sensitive so that <code>\pagebreak</code>
+differs from <code>\Pagebreak</code> (the latter is not a standard command).
+Most commands are lowercase, but in any event you must enter all
+commands in the same case as they are defined.
+</p>
+<p>A command may be followed by zero, one, or more arguments. These
+arguments may be either required or optional. Required arguments are
+contained in curly braces, <code>{...}</code>. Optional arguments are
+contained in square brackets, <code>[...]</code>. Generally, but not
+universally, if the command accepts an optional argument, it comes
+first, before any required arguments.
+</p>
+<p>Inside of an optional argument, to use the character close square
+bracket (<code>]</code>) hide it inside curly braces, as
+in <code>\item[closing bracket {]}]</code>. Similarly, if an optional
+argument comes last, with no required argument after it, then to make
+the first character of the following text be an open square bracket,
+hide it inside curly braces.
+</p>
+<p>Some of LaTeX’s commands are a <em>declaration</em>. Such a command
+changes the value the meaning of some other command or parameter. For
+instance, the <code>\mainmatter</code> declaration changes the typesetting of
+page numbers from roman numerals to arabic (see <a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter</a>).
+</p>
+<p>LaTeX has the convention that some commands have a <code>*</code> form that
+is related to the form without a <code>*</code>, such as <code>\chapter</code> and
+<code>\chapter*</code>. The exact difference in behavior varies from command
+to command.
+</p>
+<p>This manual describes all accepted options and <code>*</code>-forms for the
+commands it covers (barring unintentional omissions, a.k.a. bugs).
+<p>This is a more elaborate template for a book. It has
+<code>\frontmatter</code>, <code>\mainmatter</code>, and <code>\backmatter</code> to
+control the typography of the three main areas of a book
+(see <a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter</a>). The book has a
+bibliography and an index.
+</p>
+<p>Notable is that it uses <code>\include</code> and <code>\includeonly</code>
+(see <a href="Splitting-the-input.html#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a>). While you are working on a chapter you
+can comment out all the other chapter entries from the argument to
+<code>\includeonly</code>. That will speed up compilation without losing any
+information such as cross-references. (Material that does not need to
+come on a new page is brought in with <code>\input</code> instead of
+<code>\include</code>. You don’t get the cross-reference benefit this way.)
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cflushbottom.html#g_t_005cflushbottom" accesskey="3">\flushbottom</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Make all text pages the same height.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005craggedbottom.html#g_t_005craggedbottom" accesskey="4">\raggedbottom</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Allow text pages of differing height.
+<link href="Units-of-length.html#Units-of-length" rel="next" title="Units of length">
+<link href="_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear.html#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear" rel="prev" title="\day & \month & \year">
+ \hspace{0pt plus 1fill}\includegraphics{godel.png}%
+ \hspace{0pt plus 1fill}\includegraphics{einstein.png}%
+ \hspace{0pt plus 1fill}
+\end{minipage}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>TeX actually has three levels of infinity for glue components:
+<code>fil</code>, <code>fill</code>, and <code>filll</code>. The later ones are more
+infinite than the earlier ones. Ordinarily document authors only use
+the middle one (see <a href="_005chfill.html#g_t_005chfill">\hfill</a> and see <a href="_005cvfill.html#g_t_005cvfill">\vfill</a>).
+</p>
+<p>Multiplying a rubber length by a number turns it into a rigid length, so
+that after <code>\setlength{\ylength}{1in plus 0.2in}</code> and
+<code>\setlength{\zlength}{3\ylength}</code> then the value of
+<code>\zlength</code> is <code>3in</code>.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Units-of-length.html#Units-of-length" accesskey="1">Units of length</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The units that LaTeX knows.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005csetlength.html#g_t_005csetlength" accesskey="2">\setlength</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Set the value of a length.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005caddtolength.html#g_t_005caddtolength" accesskey="3">\addtolength</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Add a quantity to a length.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005csettodepth.html#g_t_005csettodepth" accesskey="4">\settodepth</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Set a length to the depth of something.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005csettoheight.html#g_t_005csettoheight" accesskey="5">\settoheight</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Set a length to the height of something.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005csettowidth.html#g_t_005csettowidth" accesskey="6">\settowidth</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Set a length to the width of something.
+<p>The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to
+translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To
+produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines
+(and these lines must be broken into pages).
+</p>
+<p>LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking in the text body for
+you but in some environments you manually force line breaks.
+</p>
+<p>A common workflow is to get a final version of the document content
+before taking a final pass through and considering line breaks (and page
+breaks). This differs from word processing, where you are formatting
+text as you input it. Putting these off until the end prevents a lot of
+fiddling with breaks that will change anyway.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005c_005c.html#g_t_005c_005c" accesskey="1">\\</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Start a new line.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cobeycr-_0026-_005crestorecr.html#g_t_005cobeycr-_0026-_005crestorecr" accesskey="2">\obeycr & \restorecr</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Make each input line start a new output line.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cnewline.html#g_t_005cnewline" accesskey="3">\newline</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Break the line
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cdiscretionary.html#g_t_005cdiscretionary" accesskey="5">\discretionary</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Explicit control of the hyphen character.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy.html#g_t_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy" accesskey="6">\fussy & \sloppy</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Be more or less particular with line breaking.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005chyphenation.html#g_t_005chyphenation" accesskey="7">\hyphenation</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Tell LaTeX how to hyphenate a word.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak.html#g_t_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak" accesskey="8">\linebreak & \nolinebreak</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Forcing & avoiding line breaks.
+<p>There are places where a new paragraph is not permitted. Don’t put a
+blank line in math mode (see <a href="Modes.html#Modes">Modes</a>); here the line before the
+<code>\end{equation}</code>
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\begin{equation}
+ 2^{|S|} > |S|
+
+\end{equation}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>will get you the error ‘<samp>Missing $ inserted</samp>’. Similarly, the blank
+line in this <code>section</code> argument
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\section{aaa
+
+bbb}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>gets ‘<samp>Runaway argument? {aaa ! Paragraph ended before \@sect was
+complete</samp>’.
+</p>
+
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cpar.html#g_t_005cpar" accesskey="1">\par</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">End the current paragraph.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent.html#g_t_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent" accesskey="2">\indent & \noindent</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Go into horizontal mode, possibly with an indent.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip.html#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip" accesskey="3">\parindent & \parskip</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Space added before paragraphs.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Marginal-notes.html#Marginal-notes" accesskey="4">Marginal notes</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Put remarks in the margin.
+<p>because it has no <code>\displaystyle</code>, the ‘<samp>Arithmetic</samp>’ line’s
+fraction will be scrunched. But, because of its <code>\displaystyle</code>,
+the ‘<samp>Geometric</samp>’ line’s fraction will be easy to read, with
+characters the same size as in the rest of the line.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-amsmath-5"></a>
+<a name="index-amsmath-package-5"></a>
+
+<a name="index-package_002c-amsfonts"></a>
+<a name="index-amsfonts-package"></a>
+
+<a name="index-package_002c-mathtools"></a>
+<a name="index-mathtools-package"></a>
+
+<p>The American Mathematical Society has made freely available a set of
+packages that greatly expand your options for writing mathematics,
+<samp>amsmath</samp> and <samp>amssymb</samp> (also be aware of the <samp>mathtools</samp>
+package that is an extension to, and loads, <samp>amsmath</samp>). New
+documents that will have mathematical text should use these packages.
+Descriptions of these packages is outside the scope of this document;
+see their documentation on CTAN.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Subscripts-_0026-superscripts.html#Subscripts-_0026-superscripts" accesskey="1">Subscripts & superscripts</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Also known as exponent or index.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Math-functions.html#Math-functions" accesskey="3">Math functions</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Math function names like sin and exp.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Over_002d-and-Underlining.html#Over_002d-and-Underlining" accesskey="5">Over- and Underlining</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Things over or under formulas.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode" accesskey="6">Spacing in math mode</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Thick, medium, thin, and negative spaces.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Math-miscellany.html#Math-miscellany" accesskey="7">Math miscellany</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Stuff that doesn’t fit anywhere else.
+<link href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon" rel="next" title="Colon character & \colon">
+<link href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom" rel="prev" title="\phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom">
+<em>Paragraph mode</em> is what LaTeX is in when processing ordinary
+text. It breaks the input text into lines and breaks the lines into
+pages. This is the mode LaTeX is in most of the time.
+
+<a name="index-left_002dto_002dright-mode"></a>
+<a name="index-LR-mode"></a>
+<a name="modes-lr-mode"></a><p><em>LR mode</em> (for left-to-right mode; in plain TeX this is called
+<em>restricted horizontal mode</em>) is in effect when LaTeX starts
+making a box with an <code>\mbox</code> command. As in paragraph mode,
+LaTeX’s output is a string of words with spaces between them. Unlike
+in paragraph mode, in LR mode LaTeX never starts a new line, it just
+keeps going from left to right. (Although LaTeX will not complain
+that the LR box is too long, when it is finished and next tries to put
+that box into a line, it could very well complain that the finished LR
+box won’t fit there.)
+</p>
+</li><li> <a name="index-math-mode"></a>
+<a name="modes-math-mode"></a><em>Math mode</em> is when LaTeX is generating
+an inline mathematical formula.
+
+<a name="index-display-math-mode"></a>
+<p><em>Display math mode</em> is when LaTeX is generating a displayed
+mathematical formula. (Displayed formulas differ somewhat from inline
+ones. One example is that the placement of the subscript on <code>\int</code>
+differs in the two situations.)
+</p>
+</li><li> <a name="index-vertical-mode"></a>
+<a name="modes-vertical-mode"></a><em>Vertical mode</em> is when LaTeX is building the list of lines and
+other material making the output page. This is the mode LaTeX is in
+when it starts a document.
+
+<a name="index-internal-vertical-mode"></a>
+<a name="modes-internal-vertical-mode"></a><p><em>Internal vertical mode</em> is in effect when LaTeX starts making a
+<code>\vbox</code>. This is the vertical analogue of LR mode.
+</p>
+</li></ul>
+
+<p>For instance, if you begin a LaTeX article with ‘<samp>Let \( x \) be
+...</samp>’ then these are the modes: first LaTeX starts every document in
+vertical mode, then it reads the ‘<samp>L</samp>’ and switches to paragraph
+mode, then the next switch happens at the ‘<samp>\(</samp>’ where LaTeX
+changes to math mode, and then when it leaves the formula it pops
+back to paragraph mode.
+</p>
+<a name="index-inner-paragraph-mode"></a>
+<a name="index-outer-paragraph-mode"></a>
+<a name="modes-inner-paragraph-mode"></a><a name="modes-outer-paragraph-mode"></a><p>Paragraph mode has two subcases. If you use a <code>\parbox</code> command
+or a <code>minipage</code> then LaTeX is put into paragraph mode. But it
+will not put a page break here. Inside one of these boxes, called a
+<em>parbox</em>, LaTeX is in <em>inner paragraph mode</em>. Its more usual
+situation, where it can put page breaks, is <em>outer paragraph mode</em>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005censuremath.html#g_t_005censuremath" accesskey="1">\ensuremath</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Ensure that math mode is active.
+<a name="output-files-aux"></a><p>Auxiliary information is used by LaTeX for things such as
+cross references. For example, the first time that LaTeX finds a
+forward reference—a cross reference to something that has not yet
+appeared in the source—it will appear in the output as a doubled
+question mark <code>??</code>. When the referred-to spot does eventually
+appear in the source then LaTeX writes its location information to
+this <code>.aux</code> file. On the next invocation, LaTeX reads the
+location information from this file and uses it to resolve the
+reference, replacing the double question mark with the remembered
+location.
+</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+
+<a name="index-_002elof-file"></a>
+<a name="index-list-of-figures-file"></a>
+<a name="index-_002elot-file"></a>
+<a name="index-list-of-tables-file"></a>
+<a name="index-_002etoc-file"></a>
+<a name="index-table-of-contents-file"></a>
+<a name="index-contents-file"></a>
+<p>LaTeX may produce yet more files, characterized by the filename
+ending. These include a <code>.lof</code> file that is used to make a list of
+figures, a <code>.lot</code> file used to make a list of tables, and a
+<code>.toc</code> file used to make a table of contents (see <a href="Table-of-contents-etc_002e.html#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a>). A particular class may create others; the list is
+<dd><p>Underline <var>text</var>. Works inside math mode, and outside.
+The line is always completely below the text, taking account of
+descenders, so in <code>\(\underline{y}\)</code> the line is lower than in
+<code>\(\underline{x}\)</code>. This command is fragile (see <a href="_005cprotect.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-ulem"></a>
+<a name="index-ulem-package"></a>
+
+<p>Note that the package <samp>ulem</samp> does text mode underlining and allows
+line breaking as well as a number of other features. See the
+documentation on CTAN. See also <a href="_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill.html#g_t_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill">\hrulefill & \dotfill</a> for
+producing a line, for such things as a signature.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\overline{<var>text</var>}</code>
+<a name="index-_005coverline_007btext_007d"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><p>Put a horizontal line over <var>text</var>. Works inside math mode, and
+outside. For example, <code>\overline{x+y}</code>.
+Note that this differs from the command <code>\bar</code> (see <a href="Math-accents.html#Math-accents">Math accents</a>).
+<p>LaTeX is a system for typesetting documents. It was originally
+created by Leslie Lamport and is now maintained by a group of volunteers
+(<a href="http://latex-project.org">http://latex-project.org</a>). It is widely used, particularly for
+complex and technical documents, such as those involving mathematics.
+</p>
+<a name="index-macro-package_002c-LaTeX-as"></a>
+<p>A LaTeX user writes an input file containing text along with
+interspersed commands, for instance commands describing how the text
+should be formatted. It is implemented as a set of related commands
+that interface with Donald E. Knuth’s TeX typesetting program
+(the technical term is that LaTeX is a <em>macro package</em> for the
+TeX engine). The user produces the output document by giving that
+input file to the TeX engine.
+</p>
+<p>The term LaTeX is also sometimes used to mean the language in which
+the document is marked up, that is, to mean the set of commands
+available to a LaTeX user.
+</p>
+<a name="index-Lamport-TeX"></a>
+<a name="index-pronunciation"></a>
+<p>The name LaTeX is short for “Lamport TeX”. It is pronounced
+LAH-teck or LAY-teck, or sometimes LAY-tecks. Inside a document,
+produce the logo with <code>\LaTeX</code>. Where use of the logo is not
+sensible, such as in plain text, write it as ‘<samp>LaTeX</samp>’.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Starting-and-ending.html#Starting-and-ending" accesskey="1">Starting and ending</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The standard beginning and end of a document.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="TeX-engines.html#TeX-engines" accesskey="3">TeX engines</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Programs that can compile TeX and LaTeX.
+<p>Ordinarily LaTeX automatically takes care of breaking output into
+pages with its usual aplomb. But if you are writing commands, or
+tweaking the final version of a document, then you may need to
+understand how to influence its actions.
+</p>
+<p>LaTeX’s algorithm for splitting a document into pages is more complex
+than just waiting until there is enough material to fill a page and
+outputting the result. Instead, LaTeX typesets more material than
+would fit on the page and then chooses a break that is optimal in some
+way (it has the smallest badness). An example of the advantage of this
+approach is that if the page has some vertical space that can be
+stretched or shrunk, such as with rubber lengths between paragraphs,
+then LaTeX can use that to avoid widow lines (where a new page starts
+with the last line of a paragraph; LaTeX can squeeze the extra line
+onto the first page) and orphans (where the first line of paragraph is
+at the end of a page; LaTeX can stretch the material of the first
+page so the extra line falls on the second page). Another example is
+where LaTeX uses available vertical shrinkage to fit on a page not
+just the header for a new section but also the first two lines of that
+section.
+</p>
+<p>But LaTeX does not optimize over the entire document’s set of page
+breaks. So it can happen that the first page break is great but the
+second one is lousy; to break the current page LaTeX doesn’t look as
+far ahead as the next page break. So occasionally you may want to
+influence page breaks while preparing a final version of a document.
+</p>
+<p>See <a href="Layout.html#Layout">Layout</a> for more material that is relevant to page breaking.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage.html#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage" accesskey="1">\clearpage & \cleardoublepage</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Start a new page; eject floats.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cnewpage.html#g_t_005cnewpage" accesskey="2">\newpage</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Start a new page.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cenlargethispage.html#g_t_005cenlargethispage" accesskey="3">\enlargethispage</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Enlarge the current page a bit.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak.html#g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak" accesskey="4">\pagebreak & \nopagebreak</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Forcing & avoiding page breaks.
+<a name="page-layout-parameters-columnsep"></a><a name="page-layout-parameters-columnseprule"></a><a name="page-layout-parameters-columnwidth"></a><p>The distance between the two columns, the width of a rule between the
+columns, and the width of the columns, when the document class option
+<code>twocolumn</code> is in effect (see <a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>).
+<a name="page-layout-parameters-headheight"></a><p>Height of the box that contains the running head. The default in the
+<code>article</code>, <code>report</code>, and <code>book</code> classes is ‘<samp>12pt</samp>’,
+at all type sizes.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\headsep</code>
+<a name="index-_005cheadsep"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005cheadsep-1"></a>
+<a name="page-layout-parameters-headsep"></a><p>Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of
+the main text. The default in the <code>article</code> and <code>report</code>
+classes is ‘<samp>25pt</samp>’. In the <code>book</code> class the default is: if the
+document is set at 10pt then it is ‘<samp>0.25in</samp>’, and at 11pt and 12pt
+it is ‘<samp>0.275in</samp>’.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\footskip</code>
+<a name="index-_005cfootskip"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005cfootskip-1"></a>
+<a name="page-layout-parameters-footskip"></a><p>Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of
+the page footer. The default in the <code>article</code> and <code>report</code>
+classes is ‘<samp>30pt</samp>’. In the <code>book</code> class the default is: when
+the type size is 10pt the default is ‘<samp>0.35in</samp>’, while at 11pt it is
+‘<samp>0.38in</samp>’, and at 12pt it is ‘<samp>30pt</samp>’.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\linewidth</code>
+<a name="index-_005clinewidth"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005clinewidth-1"></a>
+<a name="page-layout-parameters-linewidth"></a><p>Width of the current line, decreased for each nested <code>list</code>
+(see <a href="list.html#list">list</a>). That is, the nominal value for <code>\linewidth</code> is to
+equal <code>\textwidth</code> but for each nested list the <code>\linewidth</code>
+is decreased by the sum of that list’s <code>\leftmargin</code> and
+<code>\rightmargin</code> (see <a href="itemize.html#itemize">itemize</a>).
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\marginparpush</code>
+<a name="index-_005cmarginparpush"></a>
+</dt>
+<dt><code>\marginsep</code>
+<a name="index-_005cmarginsep"></a>
+</dt>
+<dt><code>\marginparwidth</code>
+<a name="index-_005cmarginparwidth"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005cmarginparpush-1"></a>
+<a name="index-_005cmarginsep-1"></a>
+<a name="index-_005cmarginparwidth-1"></a>
+<a name="page-layout-parameters-marginparpush"></a><a name="page-layout-parameters-marginsep"></a><a name="page-layout-parameters-marginparwidth"></a><p>The minimum vertical space between two marginal notes, the horizontal
+space between the text body and the marginal notes, and the horizontal
+width of the notes.
+</p>
+<p>Normally marginal notes appear on the outside of the page, but the
+declaration <code>\reversemarginpar</code> changes that (and
+<code>\normalmarginpar</code> changes it back).
+</p>
+<p>The defaults for <code>\marginparpush</code> in both <code>book</code> and
+<code>article</code> classes are: ‘<samp>7pt</samp>’ if the document is set at 12pt,
+and ‘<samp>5pt</samp>’ if the document is set at 11pt or 10pt.
+</p>
+<p>For <code>\marginsep</code>, in <code>article</code> class the default is
+‘<samp>10pt</samp>’ except if the document is set at 10pt and in two-column mode
+where the default is ‘<samp>11pt</samp>’.
+</p>
+<p>For <code>\marginsep</code> in <code>book</code> class the default is ‘<samp>10pt</samp>’ in
+two-column mode and ‘<samp>7pt</samp>’ in one-column mode.
+</p>
+<p>For <code>\marginparwidth</code> in both <code>book</code> and <code>article</code>
+classes, in two-column mode the default is 60% of <code>\paperwidth
+- \textwidth</code>, while in one-column mode it is 50% of that
+distance.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\oddsidemargin</code>
+<a name="index-_005coddsidemargin-1"></a>
+</dt>
+<dt><code>\evensidemargin</code>
+<a name="index-_005cevensidemargin-1"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005coddsidemargin-2"></a>
+<a name="index-_005cevensidemargin-2"></a>
+<a name="page-layout-parameters-oddsidemargin"></a><a name="page-layout-parameters-evensidemargin"></a><p>The <code>\oddsidemargin</code> is the extra distance between the left side of
+the page and the text’s left margin, on odd-numbered pages when the
+document class option <code>twoside</code> is chosen and on all pages when
+<code>oneside</code> is in effect. When <code>twoside</code> is in effect, on
+even-numbered pages the extra distance on the left is
+<code>evensidemargin</code>.
+</p>
+<p>LaTeX’s default is that <code>\oddsidemargin</code> is 40% of the
+difference between <code>\paperwidth</code> and <code>\textwidth</code>, and
+<code>\evensidemargin</code> is the remainder.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\paperheight</code>
+<a name="index-_005cpaperheight"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005cpaperheight-1"></a>
+<a name="page-layout-parameters-paperheight"></a><p>The height of the paper, as distinct from the height of the print area.
+Normally set with a document class option, as in
+<code>\documentclass[a4paper]{article}</code> (see <a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>).
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\paperwidth</code>
+<a name="index-_005cpaperwidth"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005cpaperwidth-1"></a>
+<a name="page-layout-parameters-paperwidth"></a><p>The width of the paper, as distinct from the width of the print area.
+Normally set with a document class option, as in
+<code>\documentclass[a4paper]{article}</code> (see <a href="Document-class-options.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>).
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\textheight</code>
+<a name="index-_005ctextheight"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005ctextheight-1"></a>
+<a name="page-layout-parameters-textheight"></a><p>The normal vertical height of the page body. If the document is set at
+a nominal type size of 10pt then for an <code>article</code> or <code>report</code>
+the default is ‘<samp>43\baselineskip</samp>’, while for a <code>book</code> it is
+‘<samp>41\baselineskip</samp>’. At a type size of 11pt the default is
+‘<samp>38\baselineskip</samp>’ for all document classes. At 12pt it is
+‘<samp>36\baselineskip</samp>’ for all classes.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\textwidth</code>
+<a name="index-_005ctextwidth"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005ctextwidth-1"></a>
+<a name="page-layout-parameters-textwidth"></a><p>The full horizontal width of the entire page body. For an
+<code>article</code> or <code>report</code> document, the default is ‘<samp>345pt</samp>’
+when the chosen type size is 10pt, the default is ‘<samp>360pt</samp>’ at 11pt,
+and it is ‘<samp>390pt</samp>’ at 12pt. For a <code>book</code> document, the default
+is ‘<samp>4.5in</samp>’ at a type size of 10pt, and ‘<samp>5in</samp>’ at 11pt or 12pt.
+</p>
+<p>In multi-column output, <code>\textwidth</code> remains the width of the
+entire page body, while <code>\columnwidth</code> is the width of one column
+<p>The style of a page determines where LaTeX places the components of
+that page, such as headers and footers, and the text body. This
+includes pages in the main part of the document but also includes
+special pages such as the title page of a book, a page from an index, or
+the first page of an article.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-fancyhdr"></a>
+<a name="index-fancyhdr-package"></a>
+
+<p>The package <samp>fancyhdr</samp> is very helpful for constructing page
+styles. See its documentation on CTAN.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cmaketitle.html#g_t_005cmaketitle" accesskey="1">\maketitle</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Generate a title page.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cpagenumbering.html#g_t_005cpagenumbering" accesskey="2">\pagenumbering</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Set the style used for page numbers.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cthispagestyle.html#g_t_005cthispagestyle" accesskey="4">\thispagestyle</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Change the headings/footings style for this page.
+<p>All these commands have a <code>*</code>-form that prints <var>title</var> as usual
+but is not numbered and does not make an entry in the table of contents.
+An example of using this is for an appendix in an <code>article</code> . The
+input <code>\appendix\section{Appendix}</code> gives the output ‘<samp>A
+Appendix</samp>’ (see <a href="_005cappendix.html#g_t_005cappendix">\appendix</a>). You can lose the numbering ‘<samp>A</samp>’
+by instead entering <code>\section*{Appendix}</code> (articles often omit a
+table of contents and have simple page headers so the other differences
+from the <code>\section</code> command may not matter).
+</p>
+<p>The section title <var>title</var> provides the heading in the main text, but
+it may also appear in the table of contents and in the running head or
+foot (see <a href="Page-styles.html#Page-styles">Page styles</a>). You may not want the same text in these
+places as in the main text. All of these commands have an optional
+argument <var>toc-title</var> for these other places.
+</p>
+<p>The level number in the table above determines which sectional units are
+numbered, and which appear in the table of contents. If the sectioning
+command’s <var>level</var> is less than or equal to the value of the counter
+<code>secnumdepth</code> then the titles for this sectioning command will be
+numbered (see <a href="#Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth">Sectioning/secnumdepth</a>). And, if <var>level</var> is less
+than or equal to the value of the counter <code>tocdepth</code> then the table
+of contents will have an entry for this sectioning unit
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter" accesskey="7">\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The three parts of a book.
+<link href="_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad.html#g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad" rel="next" title="\enspace & \quad & \qquad">
+<p>LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space. Some of
+these are best suited to mathematical text; see <a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a>. Some spacing commands are suitable for both regular text
+and mathematical text; versions of some of these commands are in this
+chapter.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><th colspan="3" align="left" valign="top"><pre class="menu-comment">Horizontal space
+</pre></th></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad.html#g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad" accesskey="1">\enspace & \quad & \qquad</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Traditional horizontal spaces.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cspacefactor.html#g_t_005cspacefactor" accesskey="5">\spacefactor</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Stretchability of following space
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace.html#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace" accesskey="8">\thinspace & \negthinspace</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">One-sixth of an em, and negative one-sixth.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill.html#g_t_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill">\hrulefill & \dotfill</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Stretchable horizontal rule or dots.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><th colspan="3" align="left" valign="top"><pre class="menu-comment">
+
+Vertical space
+</pre></th></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Inter-paragraph vertical spaces.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak.html#g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak">\bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Inter-paragraph space and page breaks.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cstrut.html#g_t_005cstrut">\strut</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Ensure height of a line.
+<h3 class="section">16.6 Spacing in math mode</h3>
+
+<a name="index-spacing-within-math-mode"></a>
+<a name="index-math-mode_002c-spacing"></a>
+
+<p>When typesetting mathematics, LaTeX puts in spacing according to the
+normal rules for mathematics texts. If you enter <code>y=m x</code> then
+LaTeX ignores the space and in the output the m is next to the x,
+as <em>y=mx</em>.
+</p>
+<p>But LaTeX’s rules sometimes need tweaking. For example, in an
+integral the tradition is to put a small extra space between the
+<code>f(x)</code> and the <code>dx</code>, here done with the <code>\,</code> command.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\int_0^1 f(x)\,dx
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>LaTeX provides the commands that follow for use in math mode. Many
+of these spacing definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit
+<em>mu</em>. It is defined as 1/18em, where the em is taken from the
+current math symbols family (see <a href="Units-of-length.html#Units-of-length">Units of length</a>). Thus, a
+<code>\thickspace</code> is something like 5/18 times the width of
+a ‘<samp>M</samp>’.
+</p>
+<dl compact="compact">
+<dt><code>\;</code></dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005c_003b"></a>
+<a name="index-_005cthickspace"></a>
+<a name="spacing-in-math-mode-thickspace"></a><p>Synonym: <code>\thickspace</code>. Normally <code>5.0mu plus 5.0mu</code>. Math
+mode only.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\:</code></dt>
+<dt><code>\></code></dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005c_003a"></a>
+<a name="index-_005c_003e-1"></a>
+<a name="index-_005cmedspace"></a>
+<a name="spacing-in-math-mode-medspace"></a><p>Synonym: <code>\medspace</code>. Normally <code>4.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu</code>.
+Math mode only.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\,</code></dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005c_002c"></a>
+<a name="index-_005cthinspace"></a>
+<a name="index-thin-space"></a>
+<a name="Spacing-in-math-mode_002f_005cthinspace"></a><a name="spacing-in-math-mode-thinspace"></a><p>Synonym: <code>\thinspace</code>. Normally <code>3mu</code>, which is 1/6em.
+Can be used in both math mode and text mode (see <a href="_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace.html#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">\thinspace & \negthinspace</a>).
+</p>
+<p>This space is widely used, for instance between the function and the
+infinitesimal in an integral <code>\int f(x)\,dx</code> and, if an author does
+this, before punctuation in a displayed equation.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">The antiderivative is
+\begin{equation}
+ 3x^{-1/2}+3^{1/2}\,.
+\end{equation}
+</pre></div>
+
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\!</code></dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005c_0021"></a>
+<a name="index-_005cnegthinspace"></a>
+<a name="index-thin-space_002c-negative"></a>
+<a name="spacing-in-math-mode-negthinspace"></a><p>A negative thin space. Normally <code>-3mu</code>. The <code>\!</code> command is
+math mode only but the <code>\negthinspace</code> command is available for
+text mode (see <a href="_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace.html#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">\thinspace & \negthinspace</a>).
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\quad</code></dt>
+<dd><a name="index-quad"></a>
+<a name="index-_005cquad"></a>
+<a name="spacing-in-math-mode-quad"></a><p>This is 18mu, that is, 1em. This is often used for space
+surrounding equations or expressions, for instance for the space between
+two equations inside a <code>displaymath</code> environment. It is available
+in both text and math mode.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\qquad</code></dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005cqquad"></a>
+<a name="spacing-in-math-mode-qquad"></a><p>A length of 2 quads, that is, 36mu = 2em. It is available in
+both text and math mode.
+</p></dd>
+</dl>
+
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005csmash.html#g_t_005csmash" accesskey="1">\smash</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Eliminate height or depth of a subformula.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom" accesskey="2">\phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Make empty box with the same size as the argument.
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode_002f_005cthinspace">Spacing in math mode/\thinspace</a>.</p>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Upper-and-lower-case.html#Upper-and-lower-case" accesskey="2">Upper and lower case</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Make text upper or lower case.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Symbols-by-font-position.html#Symbols-by-font-position" accesskey="3">Symbols by font position</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Inserting font symbols by number.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="Text-symbols.html#Text-symbols" accesskey="4">Text symbols</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Inserting other non-letter symbols in text.
+<p>LaTeX lets you split a large document into several smaller ones.
+This can simplify editing or allow multiple authors to work on the
+document. It can also speed processing.
+</p>
+<p>Regardless of how many separate files you use, there is always one
+<a name="index-root-file"></a>
+<a name="index-file_002c-root"></a>
+<em>root file</em>, on which LaTeX compilation starts. This shows such
+a file with five included files.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\documentclass{book}
+\includeonly{ % comment out lines below to omit compiling
+ pref,
+ chap1,
+ chap2,
+ append,
+ bib
+ }
+\begin{document}
+\frontmatter
+\include{pref}
+\mainmatter
+\include{chap1}
+\include{chap2}
+\appendix
+\include{append}
+\backmatter
+\include{bib}
+\end{document}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>This will bring in material from <samp>pref.tex</samp>, <samp>chap1.tex</samp>,
+<samp>chap2.tex</samp>, <samp>append.tex</samp>, and <samp>bib.tex</samp>. If you compile
+this file, and then comment out all of the lines inside
+<code>\includeonly{...}</code> except for <code>chap1,</code> and compile again,
+then LaTeX will only process the material in the first chapter.
+Thus, your output will appear more quickly and be shorter to print.
+However, the advantage of the <code>\includeonly</code> command is that
+LaTeX will retain the page numbers and all of the cross reference
+information from the other parts of the document so these will appear in
+your output correctly.
+</p>
+<p>See <a href="Larger-book-template.html#Larger-book-template">Larger book template</a> for another example of <code>\includeonly</code>.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cendinput.html#g_t_005cendinput" accesskey="1">\endinput</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Stop including material from a file.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly.html#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly" accesskey="2">\include & \includeonly</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Conditionally include files.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cinput.html#g_t_005cinput" accesskey="3">\input</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Unconditionally include a file.
+<p>Another example of the use of <code>\tableofcontents</code> is in <a href="Larger-book-template.html#Larger-book-template">Larger book template</a>.
+</p>
+<p>If you want a page break after the table of contents, write a
+<code>\newpage</code> command after the <code>\tableofcontents</code> command, as
+above.
+</p>
+<p>To make the table of contents LaTeX stores the information in an
+auxiliary file named <samp><var>root-file</var>.toc</samp> (see <a href="Splitting-the-input.html#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a>). For example, this LaTeX file <samp>test.tex</samp>
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\documentclass{article}
+\begin{document}
+\tableofcontents\newpage
+\section{First section}
+\subsection{First subsection}
+ ...
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>writes the following line to <samp>test.toc</samp>.
+<p>The <code>section</code> or <code>subsection</code> is the sectioning unit. The
+hook <code>\numberline</code> lets you to change how the information appears
+in the table of contents. Of its two arguments, <code>1</code> or <code>1.1</code>
+is the sectioning unit number and <code>First section</code> or <code>First
+subsection</code> is the title. Finally, <code>2</code> is the page number on which
+the sectioning units start.
+</p>
+<p>One consequence of this auxiliary file storage strategy is that to get the
+contents page correct you must run LaTeX twice, once to store the
+information and once to get it. In particular, the first time that you
+run LaTeX on a new document, the table of contents page will be empty
+except for its ‘<samp>Contents</samp>’ header. Just run it again.
+</p>
+<p>The commands <code>\listoffigures</code> and <code>\listoftables</code> produce a
+list of figures and a list of tables. They work the same way as the
+contents commands; for instance, these work with information stored in
+<samp>.lof</samp> and <samp>.lot</samp> files.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-babel-4"></a>
+<a name="index-babel-package-4"></a>
+
+<a name="index-package_002c-polyglossia-2"></a>
+<a name="index-polyglossia-package-2"></a>
+
+<p>To change the header for the table of contents page do something like
+the first line here.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\renewcommand{\contentsname}{Table of contents}
+\renewcommand{\listfigurename}{Plots}
+\renewcommand{\listtablename}{Tables}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>Similarly, the other two lines will do the other two.
+Internationalization packages such as <samp>babel</samp> or <samp>polyglossia</samp>
+will change the headers depending on the chosen base language.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-tocloft"></a>
+<a name="index-tocloft-package"></a>
+
+<a name="index-package_002c-tocbibbind"></a>
+<a name="index-tocbibbind-package"></a>
+
+<p>CTAN has many packages for the table of contents and lists of figures
+and tables. One convenient one for adjusting some aspects of the
+default, such as spacing, is <samp>tocloft</samp>. And, <samp>tocbibbind</samp>
+will automatically add the bibliography, index, etc. to the table of
+contents.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005caddcontentsline.html#g_t_005caddcontentsline" accesskey="1">\addcontentsline</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Add an entry to table of contents, etc.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005caddtocontents.html#g_t_005caddtocontents" accesskey="2">\addtocontents</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Add text directly to table of contents file, etc.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005ctypein.html#g_t_005ctypein" accesskey="1">\typein</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Read text from the terminal.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005ctypeout.html#g_t_005ctypeout" accesskey="2">\typeout</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Write text to the terminal.
+<a name="units-of-length-sp"></a><p>Scaled point, 1/65536 pt
+</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+
+<a name="index-ex"></a>
+<a name="index-x_002dheight"></a>
+<a name="index-ex-1"></a>
+<a name="index-m_002dwidth"></a>
+<a name="index-em"></a>
+<a name="index-em-1"></a>
+<a name="Lengths_002fem"></a><a name="Lengths_002fen"></a><a name="Lengths_002fex"></a><a name="units-of-length-em"></a><a name="units-of-length-en"></a><a name="units-of-length-ex"></a><p>Two other lengths that are often used are values set by the designer of
+the font. The x-height of the current font <em>ex</em>, traditionally the
+height of the lowercase letter x, is often used for vertical
+lengths. Similarly <em>em</em>, traditionally the width of the capital
+letter M, is often used for horizontal lengths (there is also
+<code>\enspace</code>, which is <code>0.5em</code>). Use of these can help make a
+definition work better across font changes. For example, a definition
+of the vertical space between list items given as
+<code>\setlength{\itemsep}{1ex plus 0.05ex minus 0.01ex}</code> is more
+likely to still be reasonable if the font is changed than a definition
+given in points.
+</p>
+<a name="index-mu_002c-math-unit"></a>
+<a name="index-mu"></a>
+<p>In math mode, many definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit
+<em>mu</em> given by 1 em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current
+math symbols family. See <a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a>.
+<p>The <var>text-settings</var> are the commands that LaTeX will run every
+time it switches from one encoding to another with the
+<code>\selectfont</code> or <code>\fontencoding</code> command. The
+<var>math-settings</var> are the commands that LaTeX will use whenever the
+font is accessed as a math alphabet.
+</p>
+<p>LaTeX ignores any space characters inside <var>text-settings</var> and
+<var>math-settings</var>, to prevent unintended spaces in the output.
+</p>
+<p>If you invent an encoding you should pick a two or three letter name
+starting with ‘<samp>L</samp>’ for ‘<samp>local</samp>’, or ‘<samp>E</samp>’ for
+‘<samp>experimental</samp>’.
+</p>
+<p>Note that output encoding files may be read several times by LaTeX so
+using, e.g., <code>\newcommand</code> may cause an error. In addition, such
+files should contain <code>\ProvidesFile</code> line (see <a href="Class-and-package-commands.html#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a>).
+</p>
+<p>Note also that you should use the <code>\...Default</code> commands only in a
+package, not in the encoding definition files, since those files
+should only contain declarations specific to that encoding.
+<p>If you issue a <code>\"</code> when the current encoding does not have a
+definition for that accent then LaTeX will use the definition from
+<code>OT1</code>
+</p>
+<p>That is, this command is equivalent to this call (see <a href="_005cUseTextAccent-_0026-_005cUseTextSymbol.html#g_t_005cUseTextAccent-_0026-_005cUseTextSymbol">\UseTextAccent & \UseTextSymbol</a>).
+<p>With that, you can express parts per thousand.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\usepackage[T1]{fontenc} % in preamble
+ ...
+Legal limit is \( 0.8 \)\textperthousand.
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>If you change the font encoding to <code>OT1</code> then you get an error like
+‘<samp>LaTeX Error: Command \textperthousand unavailable in encoding
+OT1</samp>’.
+</p>
+<p>The <code>\ProvideTextCommand</code> variant does the same, except that it
+does nothing if <var>cmd</var> is already defined. The
+<code>\DeclareTextSymbol</code> command is faster than this one for simple
+slot-to-glyph association (see <a href="_005cDeclareTextSymbol.html#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbol">\DeclareTextSymbol</a>)
+</p>
+<p>The optional <var>nargs</var> and <var>optargsdefault</var> arguments play the
+same role here as in <code>\newcommand</code> (see <a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a>). Briefly, <var>nargs</var> is an integer from 0 to 9
+specifying the number of arguments that the defined command <code>cmd</code>
+takes. This number includes any optional argument. Omitting this
+argument is the same as specifying 0, meaning that <var>cmd</var> will have
+no arguments. And, if <var>optargsdefault</var> is present then the first
+argument of <code>\<var>cmd</var></code> is optional, with default value
+<var>optargdefault</var> (which may be the empty string). If
+<var>optargsdefault</var> is not present then <code>\<var>cmd</var></code> does not take
+<p>It uses only an encoding (OMS) that is always available.
+</p>
+<p>The <code>\DeclareTextCommandDefault</code> should not occur in the encoding
+definition files since those files should declare only commands for use
+when you select that encoding. It should instead be in a package.
+</p>
+<p>As with the related non-default commands, the
+<code>\ProvideTextCommandDefault</code> has exactly the same behavior as
+<code>\DeclareTextCommandDefault</code> except that it does nothing if
+<var>cmd</var> is already defined (see <a href="_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand.html#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand">\DeclareTextCommand & \ProvideTextCommand</a>). So, packages can use it to provide fallbacks
+19}</code> has the same effect but is slower (see <a href="_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand.html#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand">\DeclareTextCommand & \ProvideTextCommand</a>).
+</p>
+<p>See <a href="fontenc-package.html#fontenc-package">fontenc package</a> for a list of common encodings. The <var>slot</var>
+can be specified in decimal, or octal (as in <code>'023</code>), or
+hexadecimal (as in <code>"13</code>), although decimal has the advantage that
+single quote or double quote could be redefined by another package.
+</p>
+<p>If <var>cmd</var> has already been defined then <code>\DeclareTextSymbol</code>
+does not give an error but it does log the redefinition in the
+<p>That is, this command is equivalent to this call (see <a href="_005cUseTextAccent-_0026-_005cUseTextSymbol.html#g_t_005cUseTextAccent-_0026-_005cUseTextSymbol">\UseTextAccent & \UseTextSymbol</a>).
+<link href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter" rel="prev" title="\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter">
+<p>redefines <code>\section</code> to have the form
+<code>\section*[<var>toctitle</var>]{<var>title</var>}</code> (here too, the
+star <code>*</code> is optional). See <a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning">Sectioning</a>. This implies that
+when you write a command like <code>\renewcommand{section}{...}</code>,
+the <code>\@startsection{...}</code> must come last in the definition. See
+the examples below.
+</p>
+<dl compact="compact">
+<dt><var>name</var></dt>
+<dd><a name="startsection-name"></a><a name="g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fname"></a><p>Name of the counter used to number the sectioning header. This counter
+must be defined separately. Most commonly this is either
+<code>section</code>, <code>subsection</code>, or <code>paragraph</code>. Although in
+those cases the counter name is the same as the sectioning command
+itself, you don’t have to use the same name.
+</p>
+<p>Then <code>\the</code><var>name</var> displays the title number and
+<code>\</code><var>name</var><code>mark</code> is for the page headers. See the third
+example below.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><var>level</var></dt>
+<dd><a name="startsection-level"></a><a name="g_t_005c_0040startsection_002flevel"></a><p>An integer giving the depth of the sectioning command.
+See <a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning">Sectioning</a> for the list of standard level numbers.
+</p>
+<p>If <var>level</var> is less than or equal to the value of the counter
+<code>secnumdepth</code> then titles for this sectioning command will be
+numbered (see <a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth">Sectioning/secnumdepth</a>). For instance, if
+<code>secnumdepth</code> is 1 in an <code>article</code> then the command
+<code>\section{Introduction}</code> will produce output like “1
+Introduction” while <code>\subsection{Discussion}</code> will produce
+output like “Discussion”, without the number prefix.
+</p>
+<p>If <var>level</var> is less than or equal to the value of the counter
+<var>tocdepth</var> then the table of contents will have an entry for this
+sectioning unit (see <a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning_002ftocdepth">Sectioning/tocdepth</a>). For instance, in an
+<code>article</code>, if <var>tocdepth</var> is 1 then the table of contents will
+list sections but not subsections.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><var>indent</var></dt>
+<dd><a name="startsection-indent"></a><a name="g_t_005c_0040startsection_002findent"></a><p>A length giving the indentation of all of the title lines with respect
+to the left margin. To have the title flush with the margin use
+<code>0pt</code>. A negative indentation such as <code>-\parindent</code> will move
+the title into the left margin.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><var>beforeskip</var></dt>
+<dd><a name="startsection-beforeskip"></a><a name="g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fbeforeskip"></a><p>The absolute value of this length is the amount of vertical space that
+is inserted before this sectioning unit’s title. This space will be
+discarded if the sectioning unit happens to start at the top of a fresh
+page. If this number is negative then the first paragraph following the
+header is not indented, if it is non-negative then the first paragraph
+is indented. (Note that the negative of <code>1pt plus 2pt minus 3pt</code>
+is <code>-1pt plus -2pt minus -3pt</code>.)
+</p>
+<p>For example, if <var>beforeskip</var> is <code>-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex</code>
+then to start the new sectioning unit, LaTeX will add about 3.5 times
+the height of a letter x in vertical space, and the first paragraph in
+the section will not be indented. Using a rubber length, with
+<code>plus</code> and <code>minus</code>, is good practice here since it gives
+LaTeX more flexibility in making up the page (see <a href="Lengths.html#Lengths">Lengths</a>).
+</p>
+<p>The full accounting of the vertical space between the baseline of the
+line prior to this sectioning unit’s header and the baseline of the
+header is that it is the sum of the <code>\parskip</code> of the text font,
+the <code>\baselineskip</code> of the title font, and the absolute value of
+the <var>beforeskip</var>. This space is typically rubber so it may stretch
+or shrink. (If the sectioning unit starts on a fresh page so that the
+vertical space is discarded then the baseline of the header text will be
+where LaTeX would put the baseline of the first text line on that
+page.)
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><var>afterskip</var></dt>
+<dd><a name="startsection-afterskip"></a><a name="g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fafterskip"></a><p>This is a length. If <var>afterskip</var> is non-negative then this is the
+vertical space inserted after the sectioning unit’s title header. If it
+is negative then the title header becomes a run-in header, so that it
+becomes part of the next paragraph. In this case the absolute value of
+the length gives the horizontal space between the end of the title and
+the beginning of the following paragraph. (Note that the negative of
+<code>1pt plus 2pt minus 3pt</code> is <code>-1pt plus -2pt minus -3pt</code>.)
+</p>
+<p>As with <var>beforeskip</var>, using a rubber length, with <code>plus</code> and
+<code>minus</code> components, is good practice here since it gives LaTeX
+more flexibility in putting together the page.
+</p>
+<p>If <code>afterskip</code> is non-negative then the full accounting of the
+vertical space between the baseline of the sectioning unit’s header and
+the baseline of the first line of the following paragraph is that it is
+the sum of the <code>\parskip</code> of the title font, the
+<code>\baselineskip</code> of the text font, and the value of <var>after</var>.
+That space is typically rubber so it may stretch or shrink. (Note that
+because the sign of <code>afterskip</code> changes the sectioning unit
+header’s from standalone to run-in, you cannot use a negative
+<code>afterskip</code> to cancel part of the <code>\parskip</code>.)
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><var>style</var></dt>
+<dd><a name="startsection-style"></a><a name="g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fstyle"></a><p>Controls the styling of the title. See the examples below. Typical
+commands to use here are <code>\centering</code>, <code>\raggedright</code>,
+<code>\normalfont</code>, <code>\hrule</code>, or <code>\newpage</code>. The last command
+in <var>style</var> may be one that takes one argument, such as
+<code>\MakeUppercase</code> or <code>\fbox</code> that takes one argument. The
+section title will be supplied as the argument to this command. For
+instance, setting <var>style</var> to <code>\bfseries\MakeUppercase</code> would
+produce titles that are bold and uppercase.
+</p></dd>
+</dl>
+
+<p>These are LaTeX’s defaults for the first three sectioning units that
+are defined with <code>\@startsection</code>, for the <samp>article</samp>,
+<samp>book</samp>, and <samp>report</samp> classes. For section, the <var>level</var> is
+1, the <var>indent</var> is 0pt, the <var>beforeskip</var> is <code>-3.5ex
+plus -1ex minus -0.2ex</code>, the <var>afterskip</var> is <code>2.3ex plus 0.2ex</code>,
+and the <var>style</var> is <code>\normalfont\Large\bfseries</code>. For
+subsection, the <var>level</var> is 2, the <var>indent</var> is 0pt, the
+<var>beforeskip</var> is <code>-3.25ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex</code>, the
+<var>afterskip</var> is <code>1.5ex plus 0.2ex</code>, and the <var>style</var> is
+<code>\normalfont\large\bfseries</code>. For subsubsection, the <var>level</var>
+is 3, the <var>indent</var> is 0pt, the <var>beforeskip</var> is
+<code>-3.25ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex</code>, the <var>afterskip</var> is
+<code>1.5ex plus 0.2ex</code>, and the <var>style</var> is
+<code>\normalfont\normalsize\bfseries</code>.
+</p>
+<p>Here are examples. They go either in a package or class file or in the
+preamble of a LaTeX document. If you put them in the preamble they
+must go between a <code>\makeatletter</code> command and a
+<code>\makeatother</code>. (Probably the error message <code>You can't use
+`\spacefactor' in vertical mode.</code> means that you forgot this.)
+See <a href="_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother.html#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother">\makeatletter & \makeatother</a>.
+</p>
+<p>This will put section titles in large boldface type, centered. It says
+<code>\renewcommand</code> because LaTeX’s standard classes have already
+defined a <code>\section</code>. For the same reason it does not define a
+<code>section</code> counter, or the commands <code>\thesection</code> and
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="_005c_0040startsection.html#g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fbeforeskip">\@startsection/beforeskip</a>.</p>
+<p>In the <samp>.toc</samp> file LaTeX will put the line <code>\contentsline
+{chapter}{\numberline {}Preface}{3}</code>; note the page number
+‘<samp>3</samp>’.
+</p>
+
+<p>All of the arguments for <code>\addcontentsline</code> are required.
+</p>
+<dl compact="compact">
+<dt><var>ext</var></dt>
+<dd><p>Typically one of the strings <code>toc</code> for the table of contents,
+<code>lof</code> for the list of figures, or <code>lot</code> for the list of
+tables. The filename extension of the information file.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><var>unit</var></dt>
+<dd><p>A string that depends on the value of the <var>ext</var> argument:
+</p>
+<dl compact="compact">
+<dt><code>toc</code></dt>
+<dd><p>For the table of contents, this is the name of a sectional unit:
+<code>part</code>, <code>chapter</code>, <code>section</code>, <code>subsection</code>, etc.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>lof</code></dt>
+<dd><p>For the list of figures: <code>figure</code>.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>lot</code></dt>
+<dd><p>For the list of tables: <code>table</code>.
+</p></dd>
+</dl>
+
+</dd>
+<dt><var>text</var></dt>
+<dd><p>The text of the entry. You must <code>\protect</code> any commands that are
+fragile (see <a href="_005cprotect.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
+</p></dd>
+</dl>
+
+<p>The <code>\addcontentsline</code> command has an interaction with
+<code>\include</code> (see <a href="_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly.html#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly">\include & \includeonly</a>). If you use them at
+the same level, as with
+<code>\addcontentsline{...}{...}{...}\include{...}</code> then lines
+in the table of contents can come out in the wrong order. The solution
+is to move <code>\addcontentsline</code> into the file being included.
+</p>
+<p>If you use a <var>unit</var> that LaTeX does not recognize, as here
+<p>Add <var>text</var>, which may be text or formatting commands, directly to
+the auxiliary file with extension <var>ext</var>. This is most commonly used
+for the table of contents so that is the discussion here, but this also
+applies to the list of figures and list of tables.
+</p>
+<p>This will put some vertical space in the table of contents after the
+‘<samp>Contents</samp>’ header.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\tableofcontents\newpage
+\addtocontents{toc}{\protect\vspace*{3ex}}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>The <code>\addtocontents</code> command has two arguments. Both are
+required.
+</p>
+<dl compact="compact">
+<dt><var>ext</var></dt>
+<dd><p>Typically one of: <samp>toc</samp> for the table of contents, <samp>lof</samp> for
+the list of figures, or <samp>lot</samp> for the list of tables. The
+extension of the file holding the information.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><var>text</var></dt>
+<dd><p>The text, and possibly commands, to be written.
+</p></dd>
+</dl>
+
+<p>The sectioning commands such as <code>\chapter</code> use the
+<code>\addcontentsline</code> command to store information. This command
+creates lines in the <samp>.toc</samp> auxiliary file containing the
+<code>\contentsline</code> command (see <a href="_005caddcontentsline.html#g_t_005caddcontentsline">\addcontentsline</a>). In contrast,
+the command <code>\addtocontents</code> puts material directly in that file.
+</p>
+<p>The <code>\addtocontents</code> command has an interaction with
+<code>\include</code> (see <a href="_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly.html#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly">\include & \includeonly</a>). If you use them at
+the same level, as with
+<code>\addtocontents{...}{...}\include{...}</code> then lines in the
+table of contents can come out in the wrong order. The solution is to
+move <code>\addtocontents</code> into the file being included.
+<link href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter" rel="next" title="\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter">
+<link href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph" rel="prev" title="\subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph">
+<p>This does not directly produce any output. But in a book or report it
+declares that subsequent <code>\chapter</code> commands start an appendix. In
+an article it does the same, for <code>\section</code> commands. It also
+resets the <code>chapter</code> and <code>section</code> counters to 0 in a
+book or report, and in an article resets the <code>section</code> and
+<code>subsection</code> counters.
+</p>
+<p>In this book
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\chapter{One} ...
+\chapter{Two} ...
+ ...
+\appendix
+\chapter{Three} ...
+\chapter{Four} ...
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>the first two will generate output numbered ‘<samp>Chapter 1</samp>’ and
+‘<samp>Chapter 2</samp>’. After the <code>\appendix</code> the numbering will be
+‘<samp>Appendix A</samp>’ and ‘<samp>Appendix B</samp>’. See <a href="Larger-book-template.html#Larger-book-template">Larger book template</a>
+for another example.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-appendix"></a>
+<a name="index-appendix-package"></a>
+<p>The <samp>appendix</samp> package adds the command
+<code>\appendixpage</code> to put a separate ‘<samp>Appendices</samp>’ in the document
+body before the first appendix, and the command <code>\addappheadtotoc</code>
+to do the same in the table of contents. You can reset the name
+‘<samp>Appendix</samp>’ with a command like
+<code>\renewcommand{\appendixname}{Specification}</code>, as well as a
+number of other features. See the documentation on CTAN.
+<link href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip" rel="prev" title="\bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip">
+<h3 class="section">19.12 <code>\bigbreak</code> & <code>\medbreak</code> & <code>\smallbreak</code></h3>
+
+<p>Synopsis, one of:
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\bigbreak
+\medbreak
+\smallbreak
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>Produce a vertical space that is big or medium-sized or small, and
+suggest to LaTeX that this is a good place to break the page. (The
+associated penalties are -200, -100, and -50.)
+</p>
+<p>See <a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip</a>, for more. These commands
+produce the same vertical space but differ in that they also remove a
+preceding vertical space if it is less than what they would insert (as
+with <code>\addvspace</code>). In addition, they terminate a paragraph where
+they are used: this example
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">abc\bigbreak def ghi
+
+jkl mno pqr
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>will output three paragraphs, the first ending in ‘<samp>abc</samp>’ and the
+second starting, after an extra vertical space and a paragraph indent,
+<p>(many authors would replace <code>\frac</code> with the <code>\tfrac</code> command
+from the <samp>amsmath</samp> package), and as with this larger slash.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\begin{equation}
+ \lim_{n\to\infty}\pi(n) \big/ (n/\log n) = 1
+\end{equation}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>Unlike the <code>\left...\right</code> pair (see <a href="_005cleft-_0026-_005cright.html#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">\left & \right</a>), the
+commands here with ‘<samp>l</samp>’ and ‘<samp>r</samp>’ do not make a group.
+Strictly speaking they need not be matched so you can write something
+like this.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\begin{equation}
+ \Biggl[ \pi/6 ]
+\end{equation}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>The commands with ‘<samp>m</samp>’ are for relations, which are in the middle of
+formulas, as here.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\begin{equation}
+ \biggl\{ a\in B \biggm| a=\sum_{0\leq i<n}3i^2+4 \biggr\}
+<link href="_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak.html#g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak" rel="next" title="\bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak">
+<link href="_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill.html#g_t_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill" rel="prev" title="\hrulefill & \dotfill">
+<h3 class="section">19.11 <code>\bigskip</code> & <code>\medskip</code> & <code>\smallskip</code></h3>
+
+<p>Synopsis, one of:
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\bigskip
+\medskip
+\smallskip
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>Produce an amount of vertical space, large or medium-sized or
+small. These commands are fragile (see <a href="_005cprotect.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
+</p>
+<p>Here the skip suggests the passage of time (from <i>The Golden Ocean</i> by
+O’Brian).
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">Mr Saumarez would have something rude to say to him, no doubt: he
+was at home again, and it was delightful.
+
+\bigskip
+``A hundred and fifty-seven miles and one third, in twenty-four hours,''
+said Peter.
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>Each command is associated with a length defined in the document class
+file.
+</p>
+<dl compact="compact">
+<dd><a name="bigskip"></a></dd>
+<dt><code>\bigskip</code>
+<a name="index-_005cbigskip"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005cbigskipamount"></a>
+<p>The same as <code>\vspace{\bigskipamount}</code>, ordinarily about one line
+space, with stretch and shrink. The default for the <code>book</code> and
+<code>article</code> classes is <code>12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt</code>.
+</p>
+<a name="medskip"></a></dd>
+<dt><code>\medskip</code>
+<a name="index-_005cmedskip"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005cmedskipamount"></a>
+<p>The same as <code>\vspace{\medskipamount}</code>, ordinarily about half of a
+line space, with stretch and shrink. The default for the <code>book</code>
+and <code>article</code> classes is <code>6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt</code>.
+</p>
+<a name="smallskip"></a></dd>
+<dt><code>\smallskip</code>
+<a name="index-_005csmallskip"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="index-_005csmallskipamount"></a>
+<p>The same as <code>\vspace{\smallskipamount}</code>, ordinarily about a
+quarter of a line space, with stretch and shrink. The default for the
+<code>book</code> and <code>article</code> classes is <code>3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt</code>.
+</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+
+<p>Because each command is a <code>\vspace</code>, if you use on in mid-paragraph
+then it will insert its vertical space between the line in which you use
+it and the next line, not necessarily at the place that you use it. So
+these are best between paragraphs.
+</p>
+<p>The commands <code>\bigbreak</code>, <code>\medbreak</code>, and <code>\smallbreak</code>
+are similar but also suggest to LaTeX that this is a good place to
+put a page break (see <a href="_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak.html#g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak">\bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak</a>.
+<p>Start a chapter. The standard LaTeX classes <code>book</code> and
+<code>report</code> have this command but <code>article</code> does not.
+</p>
+<p>This produces a chapter.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\chapter{Loomings}
+Call me Ishmael.
+Some years ago---never mind how long precisely---having little or no
+money in my purse, and nothing particular to interest me on shore, I
+thought I would sail about a little and see the watery part of
+the world.
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>The LaTeX default starts each chapter on a fresh page, an
+odd-numbered page if the document is two-sided. It produces a chapter
+number such as ‘<samp>Chapter 1</samp>’ in large boldface type (the size is
+<code>\huge</code>). It then puts <var>title</var> on a fresh line, in boldface
+type that is still larger (size <code>\Huge</code>). It also increments the
+<code>chapter</code> counter, adds an entry to the table of contents
+(see <a href="Table-of-contents-etc_002e.html#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a>), and sets the running header
+information (see <a href="Page-styles.html#Page-styles">Page styles</a>).
+</p>
+<p>The <code>*</code> form shows <var>title</var> on a fresh line, in boldface.
+But it does not show the chapter number, does not increment the
+<code>chapter</code> counter, produces no table of contents entry, and does
+not affect the running header. (If you use the page style
+<code>headings</code> in a two-sided document then the header will be from the
+prior chapter.) This example illustrates.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\chapter*{Preamble}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>The optional argument <var>toc-title</var> will appear as the chapter title
+in the table of contents (see <a href="Table-of-contents-etc_002e.html#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a>) and in
+running headers (see <a href="Page-styles.html#Page-styles">Page styles</a>). If it is not present then
+<var>title</var> will be there. This shows the full name in the chapter
+title,
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\chapter[Weyl]{Hermann Klaus Hugo (Peter) Weyl (1885--1955)}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>but only ‘<samp>Weyl</samp>’ on the contents page. This puts a line break in
+the title but that doesn’t work well with running headers so it omits
+the break in the contents
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\chapter[Given it all\\ my story]{Given it all\\ my story}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in
+the table of contents, the level number of a chapter is 0
+(see <a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth">Sectioning/secnumdepth</a> and see <a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning_002ftocdepth">Sectioning/tocdepth</a>).
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-indentfirst-1"></a>
+<a name="index-indentfirst-package-1"></a>
+
+<p>The paragraph that follows the chapter title is not indented, as is a
+standard typographical practice. To get an indent use the package
+<samp>indentfirst</samp>.
+</p>
+<p>You can change what is shown for the chapter number. To change it to
+something like ‘<samp>Lecture 1</samp>’, put in the preamble either
+<code>\renewcommand{\chaptername}{Lecture}</code> or this
+(see <a href="_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother.html#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother">\makeatletter & \makeatother</a>).
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\makeatletter
+\renewcommand{\@chapapp}{Lecture}
+\makeatother
+</pre></div>
+
+<a name="index-package_002c-babel"></a>
+<a name="index-babel-package"></a>
+
+<p>To make this change because of the primary language for
+the document, see the package <samp>babel</samp>.
+</p>
+<p>In a two-sided document LaTeX puts a chapter on odd-numbered page, if
+necessary leaving an even-numbered page that is blank except for any
+running headers. To make that page completely blank,
+see <a href="_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage.html#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage">\clearpage & \cleardoublepage</a>.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-titlesec-2"></a>
+<a name="index-titlesec-package-2"></a>
+
+<p>To change the behavior of the <code>\chapter</code> command, you can copy its
+definition from the LaTeX format file and make adjustments. But
+there are also many packages on CTAN that address this. One is
+<samp>titlesec</samp>. See its documentation, but the example below gives a
+sense of what it can do.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble
+\titleformat{\chapter}
+ {\Huge\bfseries} % format of title
+ {} % label, such as 1.2 for a subsection
+ {0pt} % length of separation between label and title
+ {} % before-code hook
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>This omits the chapter number ‘<samp>Chapter 1</samp>’ from the page but unlike
+<code>\chapter*</code> it keeps the chapter in the table of contents and the
+<p>Create a dashed rectangle around <var>text</var>. This command fits with the
+<code>picture</code> environment, although you can use it outside of there,
+because lengths are numbers specifying the distance in terms of the
+<code>\unitlength</code> (see <a href="picture.html#picture">picture</a>).
+</p>
+<p>The required arguments are: dashes are <var>dash-len</var> units long, with
+the same length gap, and the rectangle has overall width
+<var>rect-width</var> units and height <var>rect-height</var> units.
+</p>
+<p>The optional argument <var>position</var> specifies the position of
+<var>text</var>; see <a href="_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029.html#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029">\makebox (picture)</a> for the values that it can
+take.
+</p>
+<p>This shows that you can use non-integer value for <var>dash-len</var>.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\put(0,0){\dashbox{0.1}(5,0.5){My hovercraft is full of eels.}}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>Each dash will be <code>0.1\unitlength</code> long, the box’s width is
+<code>5\unitlength</code> and its height is <code>0.5\unitlength</code>.
+</p>
+<p>As in that example, a dashed box looks best when <var>rect-width</var> and
+<var>rect-height</var> are multiples of the <var>dash-len</var>.
+<p>Create a box with an enclosing frame, four lines surrounding the space.
+These commands are the same as <code>\mbox</code> and <code>\makebox</code> except
+for the frame (see <a href="_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox.html#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox & \makebox</a>). The <code>\fbox</code> command is
+robust, the <code>\framebox</code> command is fragile (see <a href="_005cprotect.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\fbox{Warning! No work shown, no credit given.}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>LaTeX puts the text into a box that cannot be split or hyphenated.
+Around that box, separated from it by a small gap, are four lines making
+a frame.
+</p>
+<p>The first two command invocations, <code>\fbox{...}</code> and
+<code>\framebox{...}</code>, are roughly the same. As to the third and
+fourth invocations, the optional arguments allow you to specify the box
+width as <var>width</var> and the position of the text inside that box as
+<var>position</var>. See <a href="_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox.html#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox & \makebox</a> for the full description but
+here is an example creating an empty box that is 1/4in wide.
+<p>The extra curly braces keep the effect of the <code>\setlength</code> local.
+</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+
+<p>As with <code>\mbox</code> and <code>\makebox</code>, LaTeX will not break lines
+in <var>text</var>. But this example has LaTeX break lines to make a
+paragraph, and then frame the result.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\framebox{%
+ \begin{minipage}{0.6\linewidth}
+ My dear, here we must run as fast as we can, just to stay in place.
+ And if you wish to go anywhere you must run twice as fast as that.
+ \end{minipage}}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>See <a href="Colored-boxes.html#Colored-boxes">Colored boxes</a> for colors other than black and white.
+</p>
+<p>The <code>picture</code> environment has a version of this command where the
+units depend on <code>picture</code>’s <code>\unitlength</code> (see <a href="_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029.html#g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029">\framebox (picture)</a>).
+<p>By default, LaTeX uses arabic numbers as footnote markers. Change
+this with something like
+<code>\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}</code>, which
+uses a sequence of symbols (see <a href="_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol.html#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</a>). To make this change global put that in the preamble. If
+you make the change local then you may want to reset the counter with
+<code>\setcounter{footnote}{0}</code>.
+</p>
+<p>LaTeX determines the spacing of footnotes with two parameters.
+<dd><a name="footnote-footnoterule"></a><p>Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page’s
+footnotes. Default dimensions in the standard document classes (except
+<code>slides</code>, where it does not appear) is: vertical thickness of
+<code>0.4pt</code>, and horizontal size of <code>0.4\columnwidth</code> long.
+Change the rule with something like this.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\renewcommand{\footnoterule}{% Kerns avoid vertical space
+ \kern -3pt % This -3 is negative
+ \hrule width \textwidth height 1pt % of the sum of this 1
+ \kern 2pt} % and this 2
+</pre></div>
+
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\footnotesep</code>
+<a name="index-_005cfootnotesep"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="footnote-footnotesep"></a><p>The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote
+(see <a href="_005cstrut.html#g_t_005cstrut">\strut</a>). By default, this is set to the normal strut for
+<code>\footnotesize</code> fonts (see <a href="Font-sizes.html#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a>), therefore there is no
+extra space between footnotes. This is ‘<samp>6.65pt</samp>’ for ‘<samp>10pt</samp>’,
+‘<samp>7.7pt</samp>’ for ‘<samp>11pt</samp>’, and ‘<samp>8.4pt</samp>’ for ‘<samp>12pt</samp>’. Change
+it as with <code>\setlength{\footnotesep}{11pt}</code>.
+</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+
+<p>The <code>\footnote</code> command is fragile (see <a href="_005cprotect.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
+</p>
+<p>LaTeX’s default puts many restrictions on where you can use a
+<code>\footnote</code>; for instance, you cannot use it in an argument to a
+sectioning command such as <code>\chapter</code> (it can only be used in outer
+paragraph mode; see <a href="Modes.html#Modes">Modes</a>). There are some workarounds; see
+<p>In a <code>minipage</code> environment the <code>\footnote</code> command uses the
+<code>mpfootnote</code> counter instead of the <code>footnote</code> counter, so
+they are numbered independently. They are shown at the bottom of the
+environment, not at the bottom of the page. And by default they are
+shown alphabetically. See <a href="minipage.html#minipage">minipage</a> and <a href="Footnotes-in-a-table.html#Footnotes-in-a-table">Footnotes in a table</a>.
+<p>Place <var>text</var> at the bottom of the page as a footnote. It pairs with
+<code>\footnotemark</code> (see <a href="_005cfootnotemark.html#g_t_005cfootnotemark">\footnotemark</a>) and can come anywhere after
+that command, but must appear in outer paragraph mode (see <a href="Modes.html#Modes">Modes</a>).
+The optional argument <var>number</var> changes the number of the footnote
+mark.
+</p>
+<p>See <a href="_005cfootnotemark.html#g_t_005cfootnotemark">\footnotemark</a> and <a href="Footnotes-in-a-table.html#Footnotes-in-a-table">Footnotes in a table</a> for usage
+<p>Puts a rectangular frame around <var>contents</var>. The reference point is
+the bottom left corner of the frame. In contrast to <code>\framebox</code>
+(see <a href="_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029.html#g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029">\framebox (picture)</a>), this command puts no extra space is put
+between the frame and the object. It is fragile (see <a href="_005cprotect.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
+<p>This is the same as <a href="_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029.html#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029">\makebox (picture)</a> except that it puts a frame
+around the outside of the box that it creates. The reference point is
+the bottom left corner of the frame. This command fits with the
+<code>picture</code> environment, although you can use it outside of there,
+because lengths are numbers specifying the distance in terms of the
+<code>\unitlength</code> (see <a href="picture.html#picture">picture</a>). This command is fragile
+<p>The required arguments are that the rectangle has overall width
+<var>rect-width</var> units and height <var>rect-height</var> units.
+</p>
+<p>The optional argument <var>position</var> specifies the position of
+<var>text</var>; see <a href="_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029.html#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029">\makebox (picture)</a> for the values that it can
+take.
+</p>
+<a name="index-_005cfboxrule-1"></a>
+<a name="index-_005cfboxsep-1"></a>
+<p>The rule has thickness <code>\fboxrule</code> and there is a blank space
+<code>\fboxsep</code> between the frame and the contents of the box.
+</p>
+<p>For this command, you must specify the <var>width</var> and <var>height</var>. If
+you want to just put a frame around some contents whose dimension is
+determined in some other way then either use <code>\fbox</code> (see <a href="_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox.html#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox & \framebox</a>) or <code>\frame</code> (see <a href="_005cframe.html#g_t_005cframe">\frame</a>).
+<link href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip" rel="next" title="\bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip">
+<link href="_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad.html#g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad" rel="prev" title="\enspace & \quad & \qquad">
+<h3 class="section">24.2 <code>\include</code> & <code>\includeonly</code></h3>
+
+<a name="index-_005cinclude"></a>
+<a name="index-_005cincludeonly"></a>
+
+<p>Synopsis:
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\includeonly{ % in document preamble
+ ...
+ <var>filename</var>,
+ ...
+ }
+ ...
+\include{<var>filename</var>} % in document body
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>Bring material from the external file <samp><var>filename</var>.tex</samp> into a
+LaTeX document.
+</p>
+<p>The <code>\include</code> command does three things: it executes
+<code>\clearpage</code> (see <a href="_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage.html#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage">\clearpage & \cleardoublepage</a>), then it
+inputs the material from <samp><var>filename</var>.tex</samp> into the document,
+and then it does another <code>\clearpage</code>. This command can only
+appear in the document body. The <code>\includeonly</code> command controls
+which files will be read by LaTeX under subsequent <code>\include</code>
+commands. Its list of filenames is comma-separated, and it can only
+appear in the preamble.
+</p>
+<p>This example root document, <samp>constitution.tex</samp>, brings in
+three files, <samp>preamble.tex</samp>, <samp>articles.tex</samp>, and
+<samp>amendments.tex</samp>.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\documentclass{book}
+\includeonly{
+ preamble,
+ articles,
+ amendments
+ }
+\begin{document}
+\include{preamble}
+\include{articles}
+\include{amendments}
+\end{document}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>The file <samp>preamble.tex</samp> contains no special code; you have just
+excerpted the chapter from <samp>consitution.tex</samp> and put it in a
+separate file just for editing convenience.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\chapter{Preamble}
+We the People of the United States,
+in Order to form a more perfect Union, ...
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>Running LaTeX on <samp>constitution.tex</samp> makes the material from the
+three files appear in the document but also generates the auxiliary
+files <samp>preamble.aux</samp>, <samp>articles.aux</samp>, and
+<samp>amendments.tex</samp>. These contain information such as page numbers
+and cross-references (see <a href="Cross-references.html#Cross-references">Cross references</a>). If you now comment out
+<code>\includeonly</code>’s lines with <code>preamble</code> and <code>amendments</code>
+and run LaTeX again then the resulting document shows only the
+material from <samp>articles.tex</samp>, not the material from
+<samp>preamble.tex</samp> or <samp>amendments.tex</samp>. Nonetheless, all of the
+auxiliary information from the omitted files is still there, including
+the starting page number of the chapter.
+</p>
+<p>If the document preamble does not have <code>\includeonly</code> then
+LaTeX will include all the files you call for with <code>\include</code>
+commands.
+</p>
+<p>The <code>\include</code> command makes a new page. To avoid that, see
+<a href="_005cinput.html#g_t_005cinput">\input</a> (which, however, does not retain the auxiliary
+information).
+</p>
+<p>See <a href="Larger-book-template.html#Larger-book-template">Larger book template</a> for another example using <code>\include</code>
+and <code>\includeonly</code>. That example also uses <code>\input</code> for some
+material that will not necessarily start on a new page.
+</p>
+<p>File names can involve paths.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\documentclass{book}
+\includeonly{
+ chapters/chap1,
+ }
+\begin{document}
+\include{chapters/chap1}
+\end{document}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>To make your document portable across distributions and platforms you
+should avoid spaces in the file names. The tradition is to instead use
+dashes or underscores. Nevertheless, for the name ‘<samp>amo amas amat</samp>’,
+<p>If you use the <samp>graphics</samp> package then the only options involve the
+size of the graphic (but see <a href="_005crotatebox.html#g_t_005crotatebox">\rotatebox</a> and <a href="_005cscalebox.html#g_t_005cscalebox">\scalebox</a>).
+When one optional argument is present then it is
+<code>[<var>urx</var>,<var>ury</var>]</code> and it gives the coordinates of the top
+right corner of the image, as a pair of TeX dimensions (see <a href="Units-of-length.html#Units-of-length">Units of length</a>). If the units are omitted they default to <code>bp</code>. In
+this case, the lower left corner of the image is assumed to be at (0,0).
+If two optional arguments are present then the leading one is
+<code>[<var>llx</var>,<var>lly</var>]</code>, specifying the coordinates of the image’s
+lower left. Thus, <code>\includegraphics[1in,0.618in]{...}</code> calls for
+the graphic to be placed so it is 1 inch wide and 0.618 inches
+tall and so its origin is at (0,0).
+</p>
+<p>The <samp>graphicx</samp> package gives you many more options. Specify them
+in a key-value form, as here.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\begin{center}
+ \includegraphics[width=1in,angle=90]{lion}
+ \hspace{2em}
+ \includegraphics[angle=90,width=1in]{lion}
+\end{center}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>The options are read left-to-right. So the first graphic above is made
+one inch wide and then rotated, while the second is rotated and then
+made one inch wide. Thus, unless the graphic is perfectly square, the
+two will end with different widths and heights.
+</p>
+<p>There are many options. The primary ones are listed first.
+</p>
+<p>Note that a graphic is placed by LaTeX into a box, which is
+traditionally referred to as its bounding box (distinct from the
+PostScript BoundingBox described below). The graphic’s printed area may
+go beyond this box, or sit inside this box, but when LaTeX makes up a
+page it puts together boxes and this is the box allocated for the
+graphic.
+</p>
+<dl compact="compact">
+<dd><a name="includegraphics-width"></a></dd>
+<dt><code>width</code></dt>
+<dd><p>The graphic will be shown so its bounding box is this width. An example
+is <code>\includegraphics[width=1in]{plot}</code>. You can use the standard
+TeX dimensions (see <a href="Units-of-length.html#Units-of-length">Units of length</a>) and also convenient is
+<code>\linewidth</code>, or in a two-column document, <code>\columnwidth</code>
+(see <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a>). An example is that by using the
+<samp>calc</samp> package you can make the graphic be 1 cm narrow than
+<dd><a name="includegraphics-height"></a><p>The graphic will be shown so its bounding box is this height. You can
+use the standard TeX dimensions (see <a href="Units-of-length.html#Units-of-length">Units of length</a>), and also
+convenient are <code>\pageheight</code> and <code>\textheight</code> (see <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a>). For instance, the command
+<code>\includegraphics[height=0.25\textheight]{godel}</code> will make the
+graphic a quarter of the height of the text area.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>totalheight</code></dt>
+<dd><a name="includegraphics-totalheght"></a><p>The graphic will be shown so its bounding box has this height plus
+depth. This differs from the height if the graphic was rotated. For
+instance, if it has been rotated by -90 then it will have zero height
+but a large depth.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>keepaspectratio</code></dt>
+<dd><a name="includegraphics-keepaspectratio"></a><p>If set to <code>true</code>, or just specified as here
+<p>Make a box to hold <var>text</var>. This command fits with the
+<code>picture</code> environment, although you can use it outside of there,
+because <var>rec-width</var> and <var>rec-height</var> are numbers specifying
+distances in terms of the <code>\unitlength</code> (see <a href="picture.html#picture">picture</a>). This
+command is similar to the normal <code>\makebox</code> command (see <a href="_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox.html#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox & \makebox</a>) except here that you must specify the width and height. This
+command is fragile (see <a href="_005cprotect.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
+</p>
+<p>This makes a box of length 3.5 times <code>\unitlength</code> and height 4
+<p>with ‘<samp>Chapter Exam</samp>’ centered. But <var>text</var> can also be too wide
+for <var>width</var>. See the example below of zero-width boxes.
+</p>
+<a name="mbox-makebox-depth"></a><a name="mbox-makebox-height"></a><a name="mbox-makebox-width"></a><a name="mbox-makebox-totalheight"></a><p>In the <var>width</var> argument you can use the following lengths that refer
+to the dimension of the box that LaTeX gets on typesetting
+<p>End the current page. This command is robust (see <a href="_005cprotect.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
+</p>
+<p>LaTeX’s page breaks are optimized so ordinarily you only use this
+command in a document body to polish the final version, or inside
+commands.
+</p>
+<p>While the commands <code>\clearpage</code> and <code>\cleardoublepage</code> also
+end the current page, in addition they clear pending floats
+(see <a href="_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage.html#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage">\clearpage & \cleardoublepage</a>). And, if LaTeX is in
+two-column mode then <code>\clearpage</code> and <code>\cleardoublepage</code> end
+the current page, possibly leaving an empty column, while
+<code>\newpage</code> only ends the current column.
+</p>
+<p>In contrast with <code>\pagebreak</code> (see <a href="_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak.html#g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak">\pagebreak & \nopagebreak</a>),
+the <code>\newpage</code> command will cause the new page to start right where
+requested. This
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this
+continent,
+\newpage
+\noindent a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the
+proposition that all men are created equal.
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>makes a new page start after ‘<samp>continent,</samp>’ and the cut-off line is
+not right justified. In addition, <code>\newpage</code> does not vertically
+stretch out the page, as <code>\pagebreak</code> does.
+<dd><p>lowercase letters: a, b, … If you have more than 26 pages then you
+get ‘<samp>LaTeX Error: Counter too large</samp>’.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>Alph</code></dt>
+<dd><p>uppercase letters: A, B, … If you have more than 26 pages then you
+get ‘<samp>LaTeX Error: Counter too large</samp>’.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>gobble</code></dt>
+<dd><a name="index-package_002c-hyperref-2"></a>
+<a name="index-hyperref-package-2"></a>
+<p>LaTeX does not output a page number, although it
+does get reset. References to that page also are blank. (This does not
+work with the popular package <samp>hyperref</samp> so to have the page number
+not appear you may want to instead use <code>\pagestyle{empty}</code> or
+<code>\thispagestyle{empty}</code>.)
+</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+
+<p>Traditionally, if a document has front matter—preface, table of
+contents, etc.—then it is numbered with lowercase Roman numerals. The
+main matter of a document uses arabic. See <a href="_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter.html#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter & \mainmatter & \backmatter</a>.
+</p>
+<p>If you want to address where the page number appears on the page,
+see <a href="_005cpagestyle.html#g_t_005cpagestyle">\pagestyle</a>. If you want to change the value of page
+number then you will manipulate the <code>page</code> counter
+<p>In LR mode or a vertical mode the <code>\par</code> command does nothing but
+it terminates paragraph mode, switching LaTeX to vertical mode
+(see <a href="Modes.html#Modes">Modes</a>).
+</p>
+<p>You cannot use the <code>\par</code> command in a math mode. You also cannot
+use it in the argument of many commands, such as the <code>\section</code>
+command (see <a href="Making-paragraphs.html#Making-paragraphs">Making paragraphs</a> and <a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a>).
+</p>
+<p>The <code>\par</code> command is not the same as the <code>\paragraph</code>
+command. The latter is, like <code>\section</code> or <code>\subsection</code>, a
+sectioning unit used by the standard LaTeX documents
+(see <a href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph</a>).
+</p>
+<p>The <code>\par</code> command is not the same as <code>\newline</code> or the line
+break double backslash, <code>\\</code>. The difference is that <code>\par</code>
+ends the paragraph, not just the line, and also triggers the addition of
+the between-paragraph vertical space <code>\parskip</code> (see <a href="_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip.html#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip">\parindent & \parskip</a>).
+</p>
+<p>The output from this example
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">xyz
+
+\setlength{\parindent}{3in}
+\setlength{\parskip}{5in}
+\noindent test\indent test1\par test2
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>is: after ‘<samp>xyz</samp>’ there is a vertical skip of 5 inches and then
+‘<samp>test</samp>’ appears, aligned with the left margin. On the same line,
+there is an empty horizontal space of 3 inches and then
+‘<samp>test1</samp>’ appears. Finally. there is a vertical space of
+5 inches, followed by a fresh paragraph with a paragraph indent of
+3 inches, and then LaTeX puts the text ‘<samp>test2</samp>’.
+but it does not show the part number, does not increment the
+<code>part</code> counter, and produces no table of contents entry.
+</p>
+<p>The optional argument <var>toc-title</var> will appear as the part title in
+the table of contents (see <a href="Table-of-contents-etc_002e.html#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a>) and in running
+headers (see <a href="Page-styles.html#Page-styles">Page styles</a>). If it is not present then <var>title</var>
+will be there. This example puts a line break in <var>title</var> but leaves
+out the break in the table of contents.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\part[Up from the bottom; my life]{Up from the bottom\\ my life}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in
+the table of contents, the level number of a part is -1
+(see <a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth">Sectioning/secnumdepth</a> and see <a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning_002ftocdepth">Sectioning/tocdepth</a>).
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-indentfirst"></a>
+<a name="index-indentfirst-package"></a>
+
+<p>In the class <code>article</code>, if a paragraph immediately follows the part
+title then it is not indented. To get an indent you can use the package
+<samp>indentfirst</samp>.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-titlesec-1"></a>
+<a name="index-titlesec-package-1"></a>
+
+<p>One package to change the behavior of <code>\part</code> is <samp>titlesec</samp>.
+<p>The <code>\vphantom{a^3}</code> causes the first <code>\sqrt</code> to have inside
+it a box of the same height as the second <code>\sqrt</code>, so LaTeX
+makes the bars align.
+</p>
+<p>These commands often are combined with <code>\smash</code>. See <a href="_005csmash.html#g_t_005csmash">\smash</a>
+for another example of the use of <code>\vphantom</code>.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-mathtools-5"></a>
+<a name="index-mathtools-package-5"></a>
+
+<p>The three phantom commands appear often but note that LaTeX provides
+a suite of other commands to work with box sizes that may be more
+convenient, including <code>\makebox</code> (see <a href="_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox.html#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox & \makebox</a>) as well
+as <code>\settodepth</code> (see <a href="_005csettodepth.html#g_t_005csettodepth">\settodepth</a>), <code>\settoheight</code>
+(see <a href="_005csettoheight.html#g_t_005csettoheight">\settoheight</a>), and <code>\settowidth</code> (see <a href="_005csettowidth.html#g_t_005csettowidth">\settowidth</a>).
+In addition, the <samp>mathtools</samp> package has many commands that offer
+fine-grained control over spacing.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-amsmath-10"></a>
+<a name="index-amsmath-package-10"></a>
+
+<p>All three commands produce an ordinary box, without any special
+mathematics status. So to do something like attaching a superscript you
+should give it such a status, for example with the <code>\operatorname</code>
+command from the package <samp>amsmath</samp>.
+</p>
+<p>While most often used in mathematics, these three can appear in other
+contexts. However, they don’t cause LaTeX to change into horizontal
+mode. So if one of these starts a paragraph then you should prefix it
+<p>Defines a command, as long as no command of this name already exists.
+If no command of this name already exists then this has the same effect
+as <code>\newcommand</code>. If a command of this name already exists then
+this definition does nothing. This is particularly useful in a file
+that may be loaded more than once, such as a style file.
+See <a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a> for the description of the arguments.
+<p>The first mandatory argument <var>distance</var> specifies how far to raise
+the second mandatory argument <var>text</var>. This is a rigid length
+(see <a href="Lengths.html#Lengths">Lengths</a>). If it is negative then it lowers <var>text</var>. The
+<var>text</var> is processed in LR mode so it cannot contain line breaks
+(see <a href="Modes.html#Modes">Modes</a>).
+</p>
+<p>The optional arguments <var>height</var> and <var>depth</var> are dimensions. If
+they are specified, they override the natural height and depth of the
+box LaTeX gets by typesetting <var>text</var>.
+</p>
+<a name="raisebox-depth"></a><a name="raisebox-height"></a><a name="raisebox-width"></a><a name="raisebox-totalheight"></a><p>In the arguments <var>distance</var>, <var>height</var>, and <var>depth</var> you can
+use the following lengths that refer to the dimension of the box that
+LaTeX gets on typesetting <var>text</var>: <code>\depth</code>, <code>\height</code>,
+<code>\width</code>, <code>\totalheight</code> (this is the box’s height plus its
+depth).
+</p>
+<p>This will align two graphics on their top (see <a href="Graphics.html#Graphics">Graphics</a>).
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\usepackage{graphicx} \usepackage{calc} % in preamble
+<p>To read in an entire file at once use <code>\input</code> (see <a href="_005cinput.html#g_t_005cinput">\input</a>) or
+<code>\include</code> (see <a href="_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly.html#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly">\include & \includeonly</a>).
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-datatool"></a>
+<a name="index-datatool-package"></a>
+
+<p>A common reason to want to read from a data file is to do mail merge.
+CTAN has a number of packages for that; one is <samp>datatool</samp>.
+<p>Typeset <var>text</var> just as with <code>\makebox</code> (see <a href="_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox.html#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox & \makebox</a>) except that LaTeX does not output it but instead saves it
+in a storage bin named <var>box-cmd</var>. The bin name <var>box-cmd</var> begins
+with a backslash, <code>\</code>. You must have previously allocated the bin
+<var>box-cmd</var> with <code>\newsavebox</code> (see <a href="_005cnewsavebox.html#g_t_005cnewsavebox">\newsavebox</a>).The
+<code>\sbox</code> command is robust while <code>\savebox</code> is fragile
+But it does not show the section number, does not increment the
+<code>section</code> counter, produces no table of contents entry, and does
+not affect the running header. (If you use the page style
+<code>headings</code> in a two-sided document then the header will be from the
+prior section.)
+</p>
+<p>The optional argument <var>toc-title</var> will appear as the section title
+in the table of contents (see <a href="Table-of-contents-etc_002e.html#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a>) and in
+running headers (see <a href="Page-styles.html#Page-styles">Page styles</a>). If it is not present then
+<var>title</var> will be there. This shows the full name in the title of the
+section,
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\section[Elizabeth~II]{Elizabeth the Second,
+ by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom,
+ Canada and Her other Realms and Territories Queen,
+ Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>but only ‘<samp>Elizabeth II</samp>’ on the contents page and in the headers.
+This has a line break in <var>title</var> but that does not work with headers
+so it is omitted from the contents and headers.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\section[Truth is, I cheated; my life story]{Truth is,
+ I cheated\\my life story}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in
+the table of contents, the level number of a section is 1
+(see <a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth">Sectioning/secnumdepth</a> and see <a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning_002ftocdepth">Sectioning/tocdepth</a>).
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-indentfirst-2"></a>
+<a name="index-indentfirst-package-2"></a>
+
+<p>The paragraph that follows the section title is not indented, as is a
+standard typographical practice. One way to get an indent is to use the
+package <samp>indentfirst</samp>.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-titlesec-3"></a>
+<a name="index-titlesec-package-3"></a>
+
+<p>In general, to change the behavior of the <code>\section</code> command, there
+are a number of options. One is the <code>\@startsection</code> command
+(see <a href="_005c_0040startsection.html#g_t_005c_0040startsection">\@startsection</a>). There are also many packages on CTAN that
+address this, including <samp>titlesec</samp>. See the documentation but the
+example below gives a sense of what they can do.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble
+<link href="index.html#SEC_Contents" rel="contents" title="Table of Contents">
+<link href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode" rel="up" title="Spacing in math mode">
+<link href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom" rel="next" title="\phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom">
+<link href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#Spacing-in-math-mode" rel="prev" title="Spacing in math mode">
+<p>Note the use of <code>\vphantom</code> to give the <code>\sqrt</code> command an
+argument with the height of the <code>\sum</code> (see <a href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom & \vphantom & \hphantom</a>).
+</p>
+<p>While most often used in mathematics, the <code>\smash</code> command can
+appear in other contexts. However, it doesn’t change into horizontal
+mode. So if it starts a paragraph then you should first put a
+<code>\leavevmode</code>, as in the bottom line below.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">xxx xxx xxx
+
+\smash{yyy} % no paragraph indent
+
+\leavevmode\smash{zzz} % usual paragraph indent
+</pre></div>
+
+<a name="index-package_002c-mathtools-4"></a>
+<a name="index-mathtools-package-4"></a>
+
+<p>The package <code>mathtools</code> has operators that provide even finer
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cnormalsfcodes.html#g_t_005cnormalsfcodes" accesskey="3">\normalsfcodes</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Restore space factor settings to the default.
+<link href="_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear.html#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear" rel="next" title="\day & \month & \year">
+<link href="_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak.html#g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak" rel="prev" title="\bigbreak & \medbreak & \smallbreak">
+<link href="_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph.html#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph" rel="next" title="\subsubsection & \paragraph & \subparagraph">
+But it does not show the section number, does not increment the
+<code>section</code> counter, and produces no table of contents entry.
+</p>
+<p>The optional argument <var>toc-title</var> will appear as the section title
+in the table of contents (see <a href="Table-of-contents-etc_002e.html#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a>). If it is
+not present then <var>title</var> will be there. This shows the full name in
+the title of the section,
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\subsection[$\alpha,\beta,\gamma$ paper]{\textit{The Origin of
+ Chemical Elements} by R.A.~Alpher, H.~Bethe, and G.~Gamow}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>but only ‘<samp>α,β,γ
+paper</samp>’ on the contents page.
+</p>
+<p>For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in
+the table of contents, the level number of a subsection is 2
+(see <a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth">Sectioning/secnumdepth</a> and see <a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning_002ftocdepth">Sectioning/tocdepth</a>).
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-indentfirst-3"></a>
+<a name="index-indentfirst-package-3"></a>
+
+<p>The paragraph that follows the subsection title is not indented, as is a
+standard typographical practice. One way to get an indent is to use the
+package <samp>indentfirst</samp>.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-titlesec-4"></a>
+<a name="index-titlesec-package-4"></a>
+
+<p>There are a number of ways to change the behavior of the
+<code>\subsection</code> command. One is the <code>\@startsection</code> command
+(see <a href="_005c_0040startsection.html#g_t_005c_0040startsection">\@startsection</a>). There are also many packages on CTAN that
+address this, including <samp>titlesec</samp>. See the documentation but the
+example below gives a sense of what they can do.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\usepackage{titlesec} % in preamble
+\titleformat{\subsection}[runin]
+ {\normalfont\normalsize\bfseries} % format of the title
+ {\thesubsection} % label
+ {0.6em} % space between label and title
+ {} % before-code hook
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>That puts the subsection number and <var>title</var> in the first line of
+capable of withstanding the effects of load and stresses from
+consumer-grade gasoline engine piston rings.
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>The default output of each of the three does not change over the
+standard LaTeX classes <code>article</code>, <code>book</code>, and
+<code>report</code>. For <code>\subsubsection</code> the <var>title</var> is alone on
+its line, in boldface and normal size type. For <code>\paragraph</code> the
+<var>title</var> is inline with the text, not indented, in boldface and
+normal size type. For <code>\subparagraph</code> the <var>title</var> is inline
+with the text, with a paragraph indent, in boldface and normal size type
+(Because an <code>article</code> has no chapters its subsubsections are
+numbered and so it looks like ‘<samp>1.2.3 <var>title</var></samp>’, for
+section 1, subsection 2, and subsubsection 3. The other
+two divisions are not numbered.)
+</p>
+<p>The <code>*</code> form shows <var>title</var>. But it does not increment the
+associated counter and produces no table of contents entry (and does not
+show the number for <code>\subsubsection</code>).
+</p>
+<p>The optional argument <var>toc-title</var> will appear as the division title
+in the table of contents (see <a href="Table-of-contents-etc_002e.html#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a>). If it is
+not present then <var>title</var> will be there.
+</p>
+<p>For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in
+the table of contents, the level number of a subsubsection is 3, of
+a paragraph is 4, and of a subparagraph is 5
+(see <a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth">Sectioning/secnumdepth</a> and see <a href="Sectioning.html#Sectioning_002ftocdepth">Sectioning/tocdepth</a>).
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-indentfirst-4"></a>
+<a name="index-indentfirst-package-4"></a>
+
+<p>The paragraph that follows the subsubsection title is not indented, as is a
+standard typographical practice. One way to get an indent is to use the
+package <samp>indentfirst</samp>.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-titlesec-5"></a>
+<a name="index-titlesec-package-5"></a>
+
+<p>There are a number of ways to change the behavior of the these commands.
+One is the <code>\@startsection</code> command (see <a href="_005c_0040startsection.html#g_t_005c_0040startsection">\@startsection</a>).
+There are also many packages on CTAN that address this, including
+<samp>titlesec</samp>. See the documentation on CTAN.
+<p>Declaration to set the thickness of subsequent lines, circles, and ovals
+in a picture environment to be 0.8pt. See also
+<a href="_005clinethickness.html#g_t_005clinethickness">\linethickness</a> and <a href="_005cthinlines.html#g_t_005cthinlines">\thinlines</a>. This command is illustrated
+in the Trapezoidal Rule example of <a href="picture.html#picture">picture</a>.
+<p>Declaration to set the thickness of subsequent lines, circles, and ovals
+in a picture environment to be 0.4pt. This is the default
+thickness, so this command is unnecessary unless the thickness has been
+changed with either <a href="_005clinethickness.html#g_t_005clinethickness">\linethickness</a> or <a href="_005cthicklines.html#g_t_005cthicklines">\thicklines</a>.
+<p>Produce today’s date in the format ‘<samp><var>month</var> <var>dd</var>,
+<var>yyyy</var></samp>’. An example of a date in that format is ‘<samp>July 4,
+1976</samp>’.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-babel-3"></a>
+<a name="index-babel-package-3"></a>
+
+<a name="index-package_002c-polyglossia-1"></a>
+<a name="index-polyglossia-package-1"></a>
+
+<p>Multilingual packages such as <samp>babel</samp> or <samp>polyglossia</samp>, or
+classes such as <samp>lettre</samp>, will localize <code>\today</code>. For example,
+the following will output ‘<samp>4 juillet 1976</samp>’:
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\year=1976 \month=7 \day=4
+\documentclass{minimal}
+\usepackage[french]{babel}
+\begin{document}
+\today
+\end{document}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p><code>\today</code> uses the counters <code>\day</code>, <code>\month</code>, and
+<code>\year</code> (see <a href="_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear.html#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear">\day & \month & \year</a>).
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-datetime"></a>
+<a name="index-datetime-package"></a>
+
+<p>A number of package on CTAN work with dates. One is <samp>datetime</samp> package
+which can produce a wide variety of date formats, including ISO standards.
+</p>
+<p>The date is not updated as the LaTeX process runs, so in principle the
+date could be incorrect by the time the program finishes.
+<p>Produce the box most recently saved in the bin <var>box-cmd</var> by the
+commands <code>\sbox</code> or <code>\savebox</code>, or the <code>lrbox</code>
+environment. See <a href="_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox.html#g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox">\sbox & \savebox</a> for more information and examples.
+(Note that <var>box-cmd</var> starts with a backslash.) This command is
+robust (see <a href="_005cprotect.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
+<p>Add the vertical space <var>length</var>. The <var>length</var> can be positive,
+negative, or zero. It is a rubber length—it may contain a <code>plus</code>
+or <code>minus</code> component (see <a href="Lengths.html#Lengths">Lengths</a>).
+</p>
+<p>This puts space between the two paragraphs.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">And I slept.
+
+\vspace{1ex plus 0.5ex}
+The new day dawned cold.
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>(See <a href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip & \medskip & \smallskip</a> for common inter-paragraph
+spaces.)
+</p>
+<p>The <code>*</code>-version inserts vertical space that non-discardable. More
+precisely, LaTeX discards vertical space at a page break and the
+<code>*</code>-version causes the space to stay. This example leaves space
+between the two questions.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">Question: Find the integral of \( 5x^4+5 \).
+
+\vspace*{2cm plus 0.5cm}
+Question: Find the derivative of \( x^5+5x+9 \).
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>That space will be present even if the page break happens to fall
+between the questions.
+</p>
+<p>If you use <code>\vspace</code> in the middle of a paragraph (i.e., in
+horizontal mode) then the space is inserted after the line containing
+the <code>\vspace</code> command; it does not start a new paragraph at the
+<code>\vspace</code> command.
+</p>
+<p>In this example the two questions will be evenly spaced vertically on
+the page, with at least one inch of space below each.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\begin{document}
+1) Who put the bomp in the bomp bah bomp bah bomp?
+<p>With the first, LaTeX writes <var>string</var> to the file. Any commands
+in <var>string</var> will be expanded (just as in <code>\edef</code> so that to
+prevent expansion you should use <code>\noexpand</code> or a <code>toks</code>,
+except that you should use <code>#</code> instead of <code>##</code>). With the
+second, <var>string</var> is stored on the current list of things (as a
+TeX “whatsit”) and kept until the page is shipped out and likewise
+the commands are unexpanded until shipout. The third,
+<code>\protected@write</code>, is like the second except that you can use
+<code>\protect</code> on fragile commands. The extra first argument allows you
+to locally insert extra definitions to make more commands be safe or
+have special definition during the write.
+</p>
+<p>Here <var>string</var> contains a control sequence.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\newwrite\jhfile
+\openout\jhfile=test.jh
+\newcommand{\triplex}{XXX}
+\write\jhfile{test \triplex test}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>This results in the file <samp>test.jh</samp> containing ‘<samp>test XXXtest</samp>’
+followed by a newline.
+</p>
+<p>The cases where <var>number</var> is 16, 17, or 18 are special. Because of
+<code>\write</code>’s behavior when <var>number</var> is outside the range from 0
+to 15 described above, in Plain TeX <code>\write16</code> and
+<code>\write17</code> were sometimes used to write to the log file and the
+terminal. Note that in LaTeX the natural way to do that is with
+<code>\typeout</code> (see <a href="_005ctypeout.html#g_t_005ctypeout">\typeout</a>). The <code>\write18</code> command is even
+more special; modern TeX systems use it for giving commands to the
+operating system (see <a href="_005cwrite18.html#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a>).
+</p>
+<p>Ordinarily <code>\write</code> outputs a single line. Put in a newline with
+<code>^^J</code>. Thus, this produces two lines in the log file.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\wlog{Parallel lines have a lot in common.^^JBut they never meet.}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>The ability to write files raises security issues. If you compiled a
+downloaded LaTeX file and it overwrote your password file then you
+would be justifiably troubled. TeX systems by default only allow
+you to open files for writing that are in the current directory or in
+a subdirectory. This
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\newwrite\jhfile
+\openout\jhfile=../test.jh
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>gives an error like ‘<samp>Not writing to ../test.jh (openout_any = p). !
+I can't write on file `../test.jh'</samp>’. Note that you can get such an
+error when trying to use commands such as <code>\include{../filename}</code>
+because LaTeX will try to open <samp>../filename.aux</samp>. The simplest
+solution is to put the included files in the same directory as the
+master file, or in subdirectories.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-answers"></a>
+<a name="index-answers-package"></a>
+
+<p>A common case where authors want to write a file not already provided by
+LaTeX is for answers to exercises, or some other situation where you
+want to write out verbatim, without expanding the commands. CTAN has a
+number of packages for this; one is <samp>answers</samp>.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cmessage.html#g_t_005cmessage" accesskey="1">\message</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Write part of a line to log file and terminal.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cwlog.html#g_t_005cwlog" accesskey="2">\wlog</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Write to the log file.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cwrite18.html#g_t_005cwrite18" accesskey="3">\write18</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Write to the operating system.
+<p>This is a straightforward template for a book. See See <a href="Larger-book-template.html#Larger-book-template">Larger book template</a> for a more elaborate one.
+If some text is too long to fit on a line then LaTeX will insert line
+breaks that avoid hyphenation and avoid stretching or shrinking any
+interword space.
+</p>
+<p>This environment inserts space above and below the text body. See
+<a href="_005ccentering.html#g_t_005ccentering">\centering</a> to avoid such space, for example inside a <code>figure</code>
+environment.
+</p>
+<p>This example produces three centered lines. There is extra vertical
+space between the last two lines.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\begin{center}
+ A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fufillment \\
+ of the Requirements of \\[0.5ex]
+ the School of Environmental Engineering
+\end{center}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>In this example, depending on the page’s line width, LaTeX may choose
+a line break for the part before the double backslash. If so, it will
+center each of the two lines and if not it will center the single line.
+Then LaTeX will break at the double backslash, and will center the
+ending.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\begin{center}
+ My father considered that anyone who went to chapel and didn't drink
+ alcohol was not to be tolerated.\\
+ I grew up in that belief. --Richard Burton
+\end{center}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>A double backslash after the final line is optional. If present it
+doesn’t add any vertical space.
+</p>
+<p>In a two-column document the text is centered in a column, not in the
+entire page.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005ccentering.html#g_t_005ccentering" accesskey="1">\centering</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Declaration form of the <code>center</code> environment.
+<p>The <code>document</code> environment encloses the entire body of a document.
+It is required in every LaTeX document. See <a href="Starting-and-ending.html#Starting-and-ending">Starting and ending</a>.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cAtBeginDocument.html#g_t_005cAtBeginDocument" accesskey="1">\AtBeginDocument</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Hook for commands at the start of the document.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cAtEndDocument.html#g_t_005cAtEndDocument" accesskey="2">\AtEndDocument</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Hook for commands at the end of the document.
+ \item[<var>optional label of first item</var>] <var>text of first item</var>
+ \item[<var>optional label of second item</var>] <var>text of second item</var>
+ ...
+\end{enumerate}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>Environment to produce a numbered list of items. The format of the
+label numbering depends on the nesting level of this environment; see
+below. The default top-level numbering is ‘<samp>1.</samp>’, ‘<samp>2.</samp>’,
+etc. Each <code>enumerate</code> list environment must have at least one item;
+having none causes the LaTeX error ‘<samp>Something's wrong--perhaps a
+missing \item</samp>’.
+</p>
+<p>This example gives the first two finishers in the 1908 Olympic marathon.
+As a top-level list the labels would come out as ‘<samp>1.</samp>’ and
+‘<samp>2.</samp>’.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\begin{enumerate}
+ \item Johnny Hayes (USA)
+ \item Charles Hefferon (RSA)
+\end{enumerate}
+</pre></div>
+
+<a name="index-_005citem-1"></a>
+<p>Start list items with the <code>\item</code> command (see <a href="_005citem.html#g_t_005citem">\item</a>). If you
+give <code>\item</code> an optional argument by following it with square
+brackets, as in <code>\item[Interstitial label]</code>, then the next item
+will continue the interrupted sequence (see <a href="_005citem.html#g_t_005citem">\item</a>). That is, you
+will get labels like ‘<samp>1.</samp>’, then ‘<samp>Interstitial label</samp>’, then
+‘<samp>2.</samp>’. Following the <code>\item</code> is optional text, which may
+contain multiple paragraphs.
+</p>
+<p>Enumerations may be nested within other <code>enumerate</code> environments,
+or within any paragraph-making environment such as <code>itemize</code>
+(see <a href="itemize.html#itemize">itemize</a>), up to four levels deep. This gives LaTeX’s
+default for the format at each nesting level, where 1 is the top level,
+the outermost level.
+</p>
+<ol>
+<li> arabic number followed by a period: ‘<samp>1.</samp>’, ‘<samp>2.</samp>’, …
+</li><li> lowercase letter inside parentheses: ‘<samp>(a)</samp>’, ‘<samp>(b)</samp>’ …
+</li><li> lowercase roman numeral followed by a period: ‘<samp>i.</samp>’, ‘<samp>ii.</samp>’, …
+</li><li> uppercase letter followed by a period: ‘<samp>A.</samp>’, ‘<samp>B.</samp>’, …
+</li></ol>
+
+<a name="index-_005cenumi"></a>
+<a name="index-_005cenumii"></a>
+<a name="index-_005cenumiii"></a>
+<a name="index-_005cenumiv"></a>
+<a name="enumerate-enumi"></a><a name="enumerate-enumii"></a><a name="enumerate-enumiii"></a><a name="enumerate-enumiv"></a><p>The <code>enumerate</code> environment uses the counters <code>\enumi</code> through
+<code>\enumiv</code> (see <a href="Counters.html#Counters">Counters</a>).
+</p>
+<p>For other major LaTeX labeled list environments, see
+<a href="description.html#description">description</a> and <a href="itemize.html#itemize">itemize</a>. For information about list layout
+parameters, including the default values, and for information about
+customizing list layout, see <a href="list.html#list">list</a>. The package <samp>enumitem</samp> is
+useful for customizing lists.
+</p>
+<a name="index-_005clabelenumi"></a>
+<a name="index-_005clabelenumii"></a>
+<a name="index-_005clabelenumiii"></a>
+<a name="index-_005clabelenumiv"></a>
+<a name="enumerate-labelenumi"></a><a name="enumerate-labelenumii"></a><a name="enumerate-labelenumiii"></a><a name="enumerate-labelenumiv"></a><p>To change the format of the label use <code>\renewcommand</code>
+(see <a href="_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand.html#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand & \renewcommand</a>) on the commands <code>\labelenumi</code>
+through <code>\labelenumiv</code>. For instance, this first level list will be
+labelled with uppercase letters, in boldface, and without a trailing
+<p>For a list of counter-labeling commands see <a href="_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol.html#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</a>.
+<p>Figures are for material that is not part of the normal text. An
+example is material that you cannot have split between two pages, such
+as a graphic. Because of this, LaTeX does not typeset figures in
+sequence with normal text but instead “floats” them to a convenient
+place, such as the top of a following page (see <a href="Floats.html#Floats">Floats</a>).
+</p>
+<p>The <var>figure body</var> can consist of imported graphics
+(see <a href="Graphics.html#Graphics">Graphics</a>), or text, LaTeX commands, etc. It is typeset in a
+<code>parbox</code> of width <code>\textwidth</code>.
+</p>
+<p>The possible values of <var>placement</var> are <code>h</code> for ‘<samp>here</samp>’,
+<code>t</code> for ‘<samp>top</samp>’, <code>b</code> for ‘<samp>bottom</samp>’, and <code>p</code> for
+‘<samp>on a separate page of floats</samp>’. For the effect of these options on
+the float placement algorithm, see <a href="Floats.html#Floats">Floats</a>.
+</p>
+<p>The starred form <code>figure*</code> is used when a document is in
+double-column mode (see <a href="_005ctwocolumn.html#g_t_005ctwocolumn">\twocolumn</a>). It produces a figure that
+spans both columns, at the top of the page. To add the possibility of
+placing at a page bottom see the discussion of <var>placement</var> <code>b</code>
+in <a href="Floats.html#Floats">Floats</a>.
+</p>
+<p>The label is optional; it is used for cross references (see <a href="Cross-references.html#Cross-references">Cross references</a>).
+<a name="index-_005ccaption"></a>
+The optional <code>\caption</code> command specifies caption text for the
+figure. By default it is numbered. If <var>loftitle</var> is present, it is
+used in the list of figures instead of <var>title</var> (see <a href="Table-of-contents-etc_002e.html#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a>).
+</p>
+<p>This example makes a figure out of a graphic. LaTeX will place that
+graphic and its caption at the top of a page or, if it is pushed to the
+end of the document, on a page of floats.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\usepackage{graphicx} % in preamble
+ And, a fresh line forced by the double backslash.
+\end{flushleft}
+\end{minipage}
+</pre></div>
+
+
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005craggedright.html#g_t_005craggedright" accesskey="1">\raggedright</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Declaration form of the <code>flushleft</code> environment.
+<p>For an example related to this environment, see <a href="flushleft.html#flushleft">flushleft</a>.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005craggedleft.html#g_t_005craggedleft" accesskey="1">\raggedleft</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Declaration form of the <code>flushright</code> environment.
+<p>Specify the font encodings. A font encoding is a mapping of the
+character codes to the font glyphs that are used to typeset your output.
+</p>
+<p>This package only applies if you use the <code>pdflatex</code> engine
+(see <a href="TeX-engines.html#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a>). If you use the <code>xelatex</code> or
+<code>lualatex</code> engine then instead use the <samp>fontspec</samp> package.
+</p>
+<p>TeX’s original font family, Computer Modern, has a limited character
+set. For instance, to make common accented characters you must use
+<code>\accent</code> (see <a href="_005caccent.html#g_t_005caccent">\accent</a>) but this disables hyphenation. TeX
+users have agreed on a number of standards to access the larger sets of
+characters provided by modern fonts. If you are using
+<code>pdflatex</code> then this in the preamble
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
+\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc} % Optional: encoding of input file
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>gives you support for the most widespread European languages, including
+French, German, Italian, Polish, and others. In particular, if you have
+words with accented letters then LaTeX will hyphenate them and your
+output can be copied and pasted. (The optional second line allows you
+to directly enter accented characters into your source file.)
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-lmodern"></a>
+<a name="index-lmodern-package"></a>
+<a name="index-package_002c-cm_002dsuper"></a>
+<a name="index-cm_002dsuper-package"></a>
+
+<p>If you are using an encoding such as <code>T1</code> and the characters appear
+blurry or do not magnify well then your fonts may be bitmapped,
+sometimes called raster or Type 3. You want vector fonts. Use a
+package such as <samp>lmodern</samp> or <samp>cm-super</samp> to get a font that
+extends LaTeX’s default using vector fonts.
+</p>
+<p>For each <var>font_encoding</var> given as an option but not already
+declared, this package loads the encoding definition files, named
+<samp><var>font_encoding</var>enc.def</samp>. It also sets <code>\encodingdefault</code>
+to be the last encoding in the option list.
+</p>
+<p>These are the common values for <var>font_encoding</var>.
+</p>
+<dl compact="compact">
+<dt><code>OT1</code></dt>
+<dd><p>The original encoding for TeX. Limited to mostly English characters.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>OMS, OML</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Math symbols and math letters encoding.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>T1</code></dt>
+<dd><p>TeX text extended. Sometimes called the Cork encoding for the Users
+Group meeting where it was developed. Gives access to most European
+accented characters. The most common option for this package.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>TS1</code></dt>
+<dd><p>Text Companion encoding.
+</p></dd>
+</dl>
+
+<p>LaTeX’s default is to load <code>OML</code>, <code>T1</code>, <code>OT1</code>, and
+then <code>OMS</code>, and set the default to <code>OT1</code>.
+</p>
+<p>Even if you do not use accented letters, you may need to specify a font
+encoding if your font requires it.
+</p>
+<p>If you use <code>T1</code> encoded fonts other than the default Computer
+Modern family then you may need to load the package that selects your
+fonts before loading <samp>fontenc</samp>, to prevent the system from loading
+any <code>T1</code> encoded fonts from the default.
+</p>
+<p>The LaTeX team reserve encoding names starting with: ‘<samp>T</samp>’ for the
+standard text encodings with 256 characters, ‘<samp>TS</samp>’ for symbols that
+extend the corresponding T encodings, ‘<samp>X</samp>’ for test encodings,
+‘<samp>M</samp>’ for standard math encodings with 256 characters, ‘<samp>A</samp>’ for
+special applications, ‘<samp>OT</samp>’ for standard text encodings with 128
+characters, and ‘<samp>OM</samp>’ for standard math encodings with 128
+characters (‘<samp>O</samp>’ stands for ‘<samp>obsolete</samp>’).
+</p>
+<p>This package provides a number of commands, detailed below. Many of
+them are encoding-specific, so if you have defined a command that works
+for one encoding but the current encoding is different then the command
+is not in effect.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cDeclareFontEncoding.html#g_t_005cDeclareFontEncoding" accesskey="1">\DeclareFontEncoding</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Define an encoding.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cDeclareTextAccent.html#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccent" accesskey="2">\DeclareTextAccent</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Define an accent in the encoding.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cDeclareTextAccentDefault.html#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccentDefault" accesskey="3">\DeclareTextAccentDefault</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Fallback for using an accent in the encoding.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cDeclareTextCommandDefault-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommandDefault.html#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommandDefault-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommandDefault" accesskey="5">\DeclareTextCommandDefault & \ProvideTextCommandDefault</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Fallback for encoding-specific commands.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cDeclareTextComposite.html#g_t_005cDeclareTextComposite" accesskey="6">\DeclareTextComposite</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Directly access an accented glyph, in the encoding.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cDeclareTextCompositeCommand.html#g_t_005cDeclareTextCompositeCommand" accesskey="7">\DeclareTextCompositeCommand</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Run code in slot, in the encoding.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cDeclareTextSymbol.html#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbol" accesskey="8">\DeclareTextSymbol</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Define a symbol in the encoding.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cDeclareTextSymbolDefault.html#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbolDefault" accesskey="9">\DeclareTextSymbolDefault</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Fallback for a symbol in the encoding.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cUseTextAccent-_0026-_005cUseTextSymbol.html#g_t_005cUseTextAccent-_0026-_005cUseTextSymbol">\UseTextAccent & \UseTextSymbol</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Temporarily switch to another encoding.
+ <li><a name="toc-Class-and-package-construction-1" href="Class-and-package-construction.html#Class-and-package-construction">3.3 Class and package construction</a>
+ <ul class="no-bullet">
+ <li><a name="toc-Class-and-package-structure-1" href="Class-and-package-structure.html#Class-and-package-structure">3.3.1 Class and package structure</a></li>
+ <li><a name="toc-Class-and-package-commands-1" href="Class-and-package-commands.html#Class-and-package-commands">3.3.2 Class and package commands</a></li>
+ <li><a name="toc-_005citem_003a-An-entry-in-a-list" href="_005citem.html#g_t_005citem">8.16.1 <code>\item</code>: An entry in a list</a></li>
+ <li><a name="toc-trivlist_003a-A-restricted-form-of-list" href="trivlist.html#trivlist">8.16.2 <code>trivlist</code>: A restricted form of <code>list</code></a></li>
+ <li><a name="toc-_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear-1" href="_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear.html#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear">13.8 <code>\day</code> & <code>\month</code> & <code>\year</code></a></li>
+ <li><a name="toc-_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom-1" href="_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom.html#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">16.6.2 <code>\phantom</code> & <code>\vphantom</code> & <code>\hphantom</code></a></li>
+ </ul></li>
+ <li><a name="toc-Math-miscellany-1" href="Math-miscellany.html#Math-miscellany">16.7 Math miscellany</a>
+ <ul class="no-bullet">
+ <li><a name="toc-Colon-character-_003a-_0026-_005ccolon" href="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon.html#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">16.7.1 Colon character <code>:</code> & <code>\colon</code></a></li>
+ <li><a name="toc-_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad-1" href="_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad.html#g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad">19.1 <code>\enspace</code> & <code>\quad</code> & <code>\qquad</code></a></li>
+ <li><a name="toc-_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill-1" href="_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill.html#g_t_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill">19.10 <code>\hrulefill</code> & <code>\dotfill</code></a></li>
+ <li><a name="toc-_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip-1" href="_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip.html#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">19.11 <code>\bigskip</code> & <code>\medskip</code> & <code>\smallskip</code></a></li>
+ <li><a name="toc-_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak-1" href="_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak.html#g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak">19.12 <code>\bigbreak</code> & <code>\medbreak</code> & <code>\smallbreak</code></a></li>
+ \item[<var>optional label of first item</var>] <var>text of first item</var>
+ \item[<var>optional label of second item</var>] <var>text of second item</var>
+ ...
+\end{itemize}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>Produce a list that is unordered, sometimes called a bullet list. The
+environment must have at least one <code>\item</code>; having none causes the
+LaTeX error ‘<samp>Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item</samp>’.
+</p>
+<p>This gives a two-item list.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\begin{itemize}
+ \item Pencil and watercolor sketch by Cassandra
+ \item Rice portrait
+\end{itemize}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>As a top-level list each label would come out as a bullet, •.
+The format of the labeling depends on the nesting level; see below.
+</p>
+<a name="index-_005citem-3"></a>
+<p>Start list items with the <code>\item</code> command (see <a href="_005citem.html#g_t_005citem">\item</a>). If you
+give <code>\item</code> an optional argument by following it with square
+brackets, as in <code>\item[Optional label]</code>, then by default it will
+appear in bold and be flush right, so it could extend into the left
+margin. For labels that are flush left see the <a href="description.html#description">description</a>
+environment. Following the <code>\item</code> is optional text, which may
+contain multiple paragraphs.
+</p>
+<a name="index-_005clabelitemi"></a>
+<a name="index-_005clabelitemii"></a>
+<a name="index-_005clabelitemiii"></a>
+<a name="index-_005clabelitemiv"></a>
+<a name="itemize-labelitemi"></a><a name="itemize-labelitemii"></a><a name="itemize-labelitemiii"></a><a name="itemize-labelitemiv"></a><p>Itemized lists can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep.
+They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such
+as <code>enumerate</code> (see <a href="enumerate.html#enumerate">enumerate</a>). The <code>itemize</code> environment
+uses the commands <code>\labelitemi</code> through <code>\labelitemiv</code> to
+produce the default label (this also uses the convention of lowercase
+roman numerals at the end of the command names that signify the nesting
+level). These are the default marks at each level.
+</p>
+<ol>
+<li> • (bullet, from <code>\textbullet</code>)
+</li><li> <b>-<span class="nolinebreak">-</span><!-- /@w --></b> (bold en-dash, from <code>\normalfont\bfseries\textendash</code>)
+</li><li> * (asterisk, from <code>\textasteriskcentered</code>)
+</li><li> . (centered dot, rendered here as a period, from <code>\textperiodcentered</code>)
+</li></ol>
+
+<p>Change the labels with <code>\renewcommand</code>. For instance, this makes
+<a name="itemize-leftmargin"></a><a name="itemize-leftmargini"></a><a name="itemize-leftmarginii"></a><a name="itemize-leftmarginiii"></a><a name="itemize-leftmarginiv"></a><a name="itemize-leftmarginv"></a><a name="itemize-leftmarginvi"></a><p>The distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and
+the left margin of the <code>itemize</code> list is determined by the
+parameters <code>\leftmargini</code> through <code>\leftmarginvi</code>. (Note the
+convention of using lowercase roman numerals a the end of the command
+name to denote the nesting level.) The defaults are: <code>2.5em</code> in
+level 1 (<code>2em</code> in two-column mode), <code>2.2em</code> in level 2,
+<code>1.87em</code> in level 3, and <code>1.7em</code> in level 4, with smaller
+values for more deeply nested levels.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-enumitem"></a>
+<a name="index-enumitem-package"></a>
+
+<p>For other major LaTeX labeled list environments, see
+<a href="description.html#description">description</a> and <a href="enumerate.html#enumerate">enumerate</a>. For information about list
+layout parameters, including the default values, and for information
+about customizing list layout, see <a href="list.html#list">list</a>. The package
+<samp>enumitem</samp> is useful for customizing lists.
+</p>
+<p>This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost itemized
+ \item[<var>optional label of first item</var>] <var>text of first item</var>
+ \item[<var>optional label of second item</var>] <var>text of second item</var>
+ ...
+\end{list}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>An environment for constructing lists.
+</p>
+<p>Note that this environment does not typically appear in the document
+body. Most lists created by LaTeX authors are the ones that come
+standard: the <code>description</code>, <code>enumerate</code>, and <code>itemize</code>
+environments (see <a href="description.html#description">description</a>, <a href="enumerate.html#enumerate">enumerate</a>, and <a href="itemize.html#itemize">itemize</a>).
+</p>
+<p>Instead, the <code>list</code> environment is most often used in macros. For
+example, many standard LaTeX environments that do not immediately
+appear to be lists are in fact constructed using <code>list</code>, including
+<code>quotation</code>, <code>quote</code>, and <code>center</code> (see <a href="quotation-_0026-quote.html#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation & quote</a>, see <a href="center.html#center">center</a>).
+</p>
+<p>This uses the <code>list</code> environment to define a new custom
+environment.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\newcounter{namedlistcounter} % number the items
+\newenvironment{named}
+ {\begin{list}
+ {Item~\Roman{namedlistcounter}.} % labeling
+ {\usecounter{namedlistcounter} % set counter
+ \setlength{\leftmargin}{3.5em}} % set spacing
+ }
+ {\end{list}}
+
+\begin{named}
+ \item Shows as ``Item~I.''
+ \item[Special label.] Shows as ``Special label.''
+ \item Shows as ``Item~II.''
+\end{named}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>The mandatory first argument <var>labeling</var> specifies the default
+labeling of list items. It can contain text and LaTeX commands, as
+above where it contains both ‘<samp>Item</samp>’ and ‘<samp>\Roman{…}</samp>’.
+LaTeX forms the label by putting the <var>labeling</var> argument in a box
+of width <code>\labelwidth</code>. If the label is wider than that, the
+additional material extends to the right. When making an instance of a
+<code>list</code> you can override the default labeling by giving <code>\item</code> an
+optional argument by including square braces and the text, as in the
+above <code>\item[Special label.]</code>; see <a href="_005citem.html#g_t_005citem">\item</a>.
+</p>
+<p>The mandatory second argument <var>spacing</var> has a list of commands.
+This list can be empty. A command that can go in here is
+<code>\usecounter{<var>countername</var>}</code> (see <a href="_005cusecounter.html#g_t_005cusecounter">\usecounter</a>). Use this
+to tell LaTeX to number the items using the given counter. The
+counter will be reset to zero each time LaTeX enters the environment,
+and the counter is incremented by one each time LaTeX encounters an
+<code>\item</code> that does not have an optional argument.
+</p>
+<a name="index-_005cmakelabel"></a>
+<a name="list-makelabel"></a><p>Another command that can go in <var>spacing</var> is
+<code>\makelabel</code>, which constructs the label box. By default it puts
+the contents flush right. Its only argument is the label, which it
+typesets in LR mode (see <a href="Modes.html#Modes">Modes</a>). One example of changing its
+definition is that to the above <code>named</code> example, before the
+definition of the environment add
+<code>\newcommand{\namedmakelabel}[1]{\textsc{#1}}</code>, and between
+the <code>\setlength</code> command and the parenthesis that closes the
+<var>spacing</var> argument also add <code>\let\makelabel\namedmakelabel</code>.
+Then the labels will be typeset in small caps. Similarly, changing the
+second code line to <code>\let\makelabel\fbox</code> puts the labels inside a
+framed box. Another example of the <code>\makelabel</code> command is below,
+in the definition of the <code>redlabel</code> environment.
+</p>
+<p>Also often in <var>spacing</var> are commands to redefine the spacing for the
+list. Below are the spacing parameters with their default values.
+(Default values for derived environments such as <code>itemize</code> can be
+different than the values shown here.) See also the figure that follows
+the list. Each is a length (see <a href="Lengths.html#Lengths">Lengths</a>). The vertical spaces are
+normally rubber lengths, with <code>plus</code> and <code>minus</code> components,
+to give TeX flexibility in setting the page. Change each with a
+command such as <code>\setlength{itemsep}{2pt plus1pt minus1pt}</code>.
+For some effects these lengths should be zero or negative.
+</p>
+<dl compact="compact">
+<dt><code>\itemindent</code>
+<a name="index-_005citemindent"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="list-itemindent"></a><p>Extra horizontal space indentation, beyond <code>leftmargin</code>, of the
+first line each item. Its default value is <code>0pt</code>.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\itemsep</code>
+<a name="index-_005citemsep"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="list-itemsep"></a><p>Vertical space between items, beyond the <code>\parsep</code>. The defaults
+for the first three levels in LaTeX’s ‘<samp>article</samp>’, ‘<samp>book</samp>’,
+and ‘<samp>report</samp>’ classes at 10 point size are: <code>4pt plus2pt
+minus1pt</code>, <code>\parsep</code> (that is, <code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>), and
+<code>\topsep</code> (that is, <code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>). The defaults at
+11 point are: <code>4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt</code>, <code>\parsep</code> (that is,
+<code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>), and <code>\topsep</code> (that is, <code>2pt
+plus1pt minus1pt</code>). The defaults at 12 point are: <code>5pt plus2.5pt
+minus1pt</code>, <code>\parsep</code> (that is, <code>2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>), and
+<code>\topsep</code> (that is, <code>2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>).
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\labelsep</code>
+<a name="index-_005clabelsep"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="list-labelsep"></a><p>Horizontal space between the label and text of an item.
+The default for LaTeX’s ‘<samp>article</samp>’, ‘<samp>book</samp>’,
+and ‘<samp>report</samp>’ classes is <code>0.5em</code>.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\labelwidth</code>
+<a name="index-_005clabelwidth"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="list-labelwidth"></a><p>Horizontal width. The box containing the label is nominally this wide.
+If <code>\makelabel</code> returns text that is wider than this then the first
+line of the item will be indented to make room for this extra material.
+If <code>\makelabel</code> returns text of width less than or equal to
+<code>\labelwidth</code> then LaTeX’s default is that the label is typeset
+minus1pt</code>, and <code>0pt</code>. The defaults at 11 point size are:
+<code>4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt</code>, <code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>, and
+<code>0pt</code>. The defaults at 12 point size are: <code>5pt plus2.5pt
+minus1pt</code>, <code>2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>, and <code>0pt</code>.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\partopsep</code>
+<a name="index-_005cpartopsep"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="list-partopsep"></a><p>Vertical space added, beyond <code>\topsep</code>+<code>\parskip</code>, to the top
+and bottom of the entire environment if the list instance is preceded by
+a blank line. (A blank line in the LaTeX source before the list
+changes spacing at both the top and bottom of the list; whether the line
+following the list is blank does not matter.)
+</p>
+<p>The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX’s ‘<samp>article</samp>’,
+‘<samp>book</samp>’, and ‘<samp>report</samp>’ classes at 10 point size are: <code>2pt
+plus1 minus1pt</code>, <code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>, and <code>1pt plus0pt
+minus1pt</code>. The defaults at 11 point are: <code>3pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>,
+<code>3pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>, and <code>1pt plus0pt minus1pt</code>). The
+defaults at 12 point are: <code>3pt plus2pt minus3pt</code>, <code>3pt plus2pt
+minus2pt</code>, and <code>1pt plus0pt minus1pt</code>.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\rightmargin</code>
+<a name="index-_005crightmargin"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="list-rightmargin"></a><p>Horizontal space between the right margin of the list and the right
+margin of the enclosing environment. Its default value is <code>0pt</code>.
+It must be non-negative.
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><code>\topsep</code>
+<a name="index-_005ctopsep"></a>
+</dt>
+<dd><a name="list-topsep"></a><p>Vertical space added to both the top and bottom of the list, in addition
+to <code>\parskip</code> (see <a href="_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip.html#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip">\parindent & \parskip</a>). The defaults for
+the first three levels in LaTeX’s ‘<samp>article</samp>’, ‘<samp>book</samp>’, and
+‘<samp>report</samp>’ classes at 10 point size are: <code>8pt plus2pt minus4pt</code>,
+<code>4pt plus2pt minus1pt</code>, and <code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>. The
+defaults at 11 point are: <code>9pt plus3pt minus5pt</code>, <code>4.5pt
+plus2pt minus1pt</code>, and <code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>. The defaults at 12
+<dd><p>Same as <var>v0</var>. (This space is affected by whether a blank line
+appears in the source above the environment; whether a blank line
+appears in the source below the environment does not matter.)
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><var>h0</var></dt>
+<dd><p><code>\labelwidth</code>
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><var>h1</var></dt>
+<dd><p><code>\labelsep</code>
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><var>h2</var></dt>
+<dd><p><code>\listparindent</code>
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><var>h3</var></dt>
+<dd><p><code>\leftmargin</code>
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><var>h4</var></dt>
+<dd><p><code>\itemindent</code>
+</p>
+</dd>
+<dt><var>h5</var></dt>
+<dd><p><code>\rightmargin</code>
+</p>
+</dd>
+</dl>
+
+<p>The list’s left and right margins, shown above as <var>h3</var> and <var>h5</var>,
+are with respect to the ones provided by the surrounding environment, or
+with respect to the page margins for a top-level list. The line width
+used for typesetting the list items is <code>\linewidth</code> (see <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a>). For instance, set the list’s left margin to be one
+quarter of the distance between the left and right margins of the
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#low-level-font-commands-baselinestretch">low level font commands baselinestretch</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#low-level-font-commands-fontencoding">low level font commands fontencoding</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#low-level-font-commands-fontfamily">low level font commands fontfamily</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#low-level-font-commands-fontseries">low level font commands fontseries</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#low-level-font-commands-fontshape">low level font commands fontshape</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#low-level-font-commands-fontsize">low level font commands fontsize</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#low-level-font-commands-linespread">low level font commands linespread</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#low-level-font-commands-selectfont">low level font commands selectfont</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Low_002dlevel-font-commands.html#low-level-font-commands-usefont">low level font commands usefont</a>.</p>
+<p>The <var>text</var> inside the environment is saved in the bin
+<code><var>box-cmd</var></code>. The <var>box-cmd</var> must begin with a
+backslash. You must create this bin in advance with <code>\newsavebox</code>
+(see <a href="_005cnewsavebox.html#g_t_005cnewsavebox">\newsavebox</a>). This is the environment form of the <code>\sbox</code>
+and <code>\savebox</code> commands, and is equivalent to them. See <a href="_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox.html#g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox">\sbox & \savebox</a> for the full information.
+</p>
+<p>In this example the environment is convenient for entering the
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-columnsep">page layout parameters columnsep</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-columnseprule">page layout parameters columnseprule</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-columnwidth">page layout parameters columnwidth</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-evensidemargin">page layout parameters evensidemargin</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-headheight">page layout parameters headheight</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-linewidth">page layout parameters linewidth</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-marginparpush">page layout parameters marginparpush</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-marginparwidth">page layout parameters marginparwidth</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-marginsep">page layout parameters marginsep</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-oddsidemargin">page layout parameters oddsidemargin</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-paperheight">page layout parameters paperheight</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-paperwidth">page layout parameters paperwidth</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-textheight">page layout parameters textheight</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-textwidth">page layout parameters textwidth</a>.</p>
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Page-layout-parameters.html#page-layout-parameters-topmargin">page layout parameters topmargin</a>.</p>
+<p>produces a box of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters. The
+picture’s origin is the point (10mm,20mm) and so the lower-left corner
+is there, and the upper-right corner is at (110mm,220mm). When you
+first draw a picture you typically omit the optional argument, leaving
+the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your
+picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate
+optional argument.
+</p>
+<a name="index-position_002c-in-picture"></a>
+<p>Each <var>picture command</var> tells LaTeX where to put something by
+naming its position. A <em>position</em> is a pair such as <code>(2.4,-5)</code>
+giving the x- and y-coordinates. A <em>coordinate</em> is a not a length,
+it is a real number (it may have a decimal point or a minus sign). It
+specifies a length in multiples of the unit length <code>\unitlength</code>,
+so if <code>\unitlength</code> has been set to <code>1cm</code>, then the coordinate
+2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters.
+</p>
+<p>LaTeX’s default for <code>\unitlength</code> is <code>1pt</code>. it is a rigid
+length (see <a href="Lengths.html#Lengths">Lengths</a>). Change it with the <code>\setlength</code> command
+(see <a href="_005csetlength.html#g_t_005csetlength">\setlength</a>). Make this change only outside of a <code>picture</code>
+environment.
+</p>
+<p>Coordinates are given with respect to an origin, which is normally at
+the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a position appears
+as an argument, as with <code>\put(1,2){...}</code>, it is not enclosed in
+braces since the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. Also,
+unlike in some computer graphics systems, larger y-coordinates are
+further up the page.
+</p>
+<p>There are four ways to put things in a picture: <code>\put</code>,
+<code>\multiput</code>, <code>\qbezier</code>, and <code>\graphpaper</code>. The most
+often used is <code>\put</code>. This
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\put(11.3,-0.3){...}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>places the object with its reference point at coordinates
+<em>(11.3,-0.3)</em>. The reference points for various objects will be
+described below.
+<a name="index-LR-box"></a>
+The <code>\put</code> command creates an <em>LR box</em> (see <a href="Modes.html#Modes">Modes</a>).
+Anything that can go in an <code>\mbox</code> (see <a href="_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox.html#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox & \makebox</a>) can
+go in the text argument of the <code>\put</code> command. The reference point
+will be the lower left corner of the box. In this picture
+<p>the three dots are just slightly left of the point of the angle formed
+by the two lines. (Also, <code>\line(1,1){1}</code> does not call for a
+line of length one; rather the line has a change in the x coordinate of
+1.)
+</p>
+<p>The <code>\multiput</code>, <code>qbezier</code>, and <code>graphpaper</code> commands are
+described below.
+</p>
+<p>This draws a rectangle with a wavy top, using <code>\qbezier</code> for
+that curve.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\begin{picture}(3,1.5)
+ \put(0,0){\vector(1,0){8}} % x axis
+ \put(0,0){\vector(0,1){4}} % y axis
+ \put(2,0){\line(0,1){3}} % left side rectangle
+ \put(4,0){\line(0,1){3.5}} % right side
+ \qbezier(2,3)(2.5,2.9)(3,3.25)
+ \qbezier(3,3.25)(3.5,3.6)(4,3.5)
+ \thicklines % below here, lines are twice as thick
+ \put(2,3){\line(4,1){2}}
+ \put(4.5,2.5){\framebox{Trapezoidal Rule}}
+\end{picture}
+</pre></div>
+
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cput.html#g_t_005cput" accesskey="1">\put</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Place an object at a specified place.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cmultiput.html#g_t_005cmultiput" accesskey="2">\multiput</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Draw multiple instances of an object.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005ccircle.html#g_t_005ccircle" accesskey="9">\circle</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Draw a circle.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005coval.html#g_t_005coval">\oval</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Draw an oval.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cshortstack.html#g_t_005cshortstack">\shortstack</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Make a stack of objects.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cvector.html#g_t_005cvector">\vector</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Draw a line with an arrow.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029.html#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029">\makebox (picture)</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Draw a box of the specified size.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029.html#g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029">\framebox (picture)</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Draw a box with a frame around it.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cframe.html#g_t_005cframe">\frame</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Draw a frame around an object.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cdashbox.html#g_t_005cdashbox">\dashbox</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Draw a dashed box.
+<p>Typeset the paragraphs with <code>\sloppy</code> in effect (see <a href="_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy.html#g_t_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy">\fussy & \sloppy</a>). Use this to locally adjust line breaking, to avoid
+‘<samp>Overfull box</samp>’ or ‘<samp>Underfull box</samp>’ errors.
+</p>
+<p>The example is simple.
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\begin{sloppypar}
+ Her plan for the morning thus settled, she sat quietly down to her
+ book after breakfast, resolving to remain in the same place and the
+ same employment till the clock struck one; and from habitude very
+ little incommoded by the remarks and ejaculations of Mrs.\ Allen,
+ whose vacancy of mind and incapacity for thinking were such, that
+ as she never talked a great deal, so she could never be entirely
+ silent; and, therefore, while she sat at her work, if she lost her
+ needle or broke her thread, if she heard a carriage in the street,
+ or saw a speck upon her gown, she must observe it aloud, whether
+ there were anyone at leisure to answer her or not.
+<p>The node you are looking for is at <a href="Spacing-in-math-mode.html#spacing-in-math-mode-negthinspace">spacing in math mode negthinspace</a>.</p>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005ccline.html#g_t_005ccline" accesskey="3">\cline</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Draw a horizontal line spanning some columns.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005chline.html#g_t_005chline" accesskey="4">\hline</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Draw a horizontal line spanning all columns.
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005ccite.html#g_t_005ccite" accesskey="2">\cite</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Refer to a bibliography item.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cnocite.html#g_t_005cnocite" accesskey="3">\nocite</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Include an item in the bibliography.
+<p>A paragraph-making environment in which LaTeX produces as output
+exactly what you type as input. For instance inside <var>literal-text</var>
+the backslash <code>\</code> character does not start commands, it
+produces a printed ‘<samp>\</samp>’, and carriage returns and blanks are taken
+literally. The output appears in a monospaced typewriter-like font
+(<code>\tt</code>).
+</p>
+<div class="example">
+<pre class="example">\begin{verbatim}
+Symbol swearing: %&$#?!.
+\end{verbatim}
+</pre></div>
+
+<p>The only restriction on <code>literal-text</code> is that it cannot include
+the string <code>\end{verbatim}</code>.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-cprotect"></a>
+<a name="index-cprotect-package"></a>
+
+<p>You cannot use the verbatim environment in the argument to macros, for
+instance in the argument to a <code>\section</code>. This is not the same as
+commands being fragile (see <a href="_005cprotect.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>), instead it just cannot appear
+there. (But the <code>cprotect</code> package can help with this.)
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-listings-1"></a>
+<a name="index-listings-package-1"></a>
+
+<a name="index-package_002c-minted-1"></a>
+<a name="index-minted-package-1"></a>
+
+<p>One common use of verbatim input is to typeset computer code. There are
+packages that are an improvement the <code>verbatim</code> environment. For
+instance, one improvement is to allow the verbatim inclusion of external
+files, or parts of those files. Such packages include <code>listings</code>,
+and <code>minted</code>.
+</p>
+<a name="index-package_002c-fancyvrb-1"></a>
+<a name="index-fancyvrb-package-1"></a>
+
+<a name="index-package_002c-verbatimbox"></a>
+<a name="index-verbatimbox-package"></a>
+
+<p>A package that provides many more options for verbatim environments is
+<code>fancyvrb</code>. Another is <code>verbatimbox</code>.
+</p>
+<p>For a list of all the relevant packages, see CTAN.
+</p>
+<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="_005cverb.html#g_t_005cverb" accesskey="1">\verb</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The macro form of the <code>verbatim</code> environment.
KMessageBox::information(0, i18n("You have defined some tools in the User menu. From now on these tools will be available from the Build->Other menu and can be configured in the configuration dialog (go to the Settings menu and choose Configure Kile). This has some advantages; your own tools can now be used in a QuickBuild command if you wish."), i18n("User Tools Detected"));
m_listUserTools.clear();
}
if(KileConfig::rCVersion() < 8) {
// if KileConfig::rCVersion() <= 0, then 'kilerc' is (most likely) fresh or empty,
// otherwise, we have to ask the user if she wants to reset the tools
if ((KileConfig::rCVersion() <= 0) || (KMessageBox::questionYesNo(mainWindow(),
i18n("<p>The tool settings need to be reset for this version of Kile to function properly.<br/>"
"This will overwrite any changes you have made.</p>"
"<p>Do you want to reset the tools now?</p>"),
i18n("Tools need to be reset")) == KMessageBox::Yes)) {
createAction(i18nc("@action: Starts the input (and completion) of a LaTeX environment", "Complete LaTeX Environment"), "edit_complete_env", "complete2",
<label>The expansion level for the structure view.</label>
<default>5</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SvShowLabels" type="Bool">
<label>Show label commands in the structure view</label>
<default>true</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SvShowReferences" type="Bool">
<label>Show undefined references in the structure view</label>
<default>false</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SvShowBibitems" type="Bool">
<label>Show bibitems commands in the structure view</label>
<default>true</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SvShowGraphics" type="Bool">
<label>Show includegraphics commands in the structure view</label>
<default>true</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SvShowFloats" type="Bool">
<label>Show float environments in the structure view</label>
<default>true</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SvShowInputFiles" type="Bool">
<label>Show file input commands in the structure view</label>
<default>true</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SvShowSectioningLabels" type="Bool">
<label>Show labels as child of sectioning items in the structure view</label>
<default>false</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SvShowTodo" type="Bool">
<label>Show TODO and FIXME comments</label>
<default>true</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SvOpenLabels" type="Bool">
<label>Open the parent item for all labels in the structure view as default</label>
<default>false</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SvOpenReferences" type="Bool">
<label>Open the parent item for all undefined references in the structure view</label>
<default>false</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SvOpenBibitems" type="Bool">
<label>Open the parent item for all bibitems in the structure view as default</label>
<default>false</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SvOpenTodo" type="Bool">
<label>Open the parent item for all TODO and FIXME comments as default</label>
<default>false</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SvDefaultGraphicExt" type="String">
<label>Default extension to use when opening graphic files with no extension</label>
<default>eps</default>
</entry>
</group>
<group name="BibliographyMenu">
<entry name="BibliographyType" type="String">
<label>What type of bibliography (bibtex or biblatex) kile should show.</label>
<default>bibtex</default>
</entry>
</group>
<group name="Tools">
<entry name="RunLyxServer" type="Bool">
<label>Whether to run the Lyx server.</label>
<default>true</default>
</entry>
<entry name="TeXPaths" type="String">
<label>Holds the TEXINPUTS environment variable.</label>
<whatsthis>Set the TEXINPUTS environment variable here. TEXINPUTS should be a colon-separated list of all paths TeX should look for additional packages and/or files. You do not have to add :$TEXINPUTS at the end.</whatsthis>
<default></default>
</entry>
<entry name="PreviewTeXPaths" type="String">
<label>Holds the TEXINPUTS environment variable for QuickPreview tools.</label>
<whatsthis>Set the TEXINPUTS environment variable for QuickPreview tools here. TEXINPUTS should be a colon-separated list of all paths TeX should look for additional packages and/or files. You do not have to add :$TEXINPUTS at the end.</whatsthis>
<default></default>
</entry>
<entry name="BibInputPaths" type="String">
<label>Holds the BIBINPUTS environment variable.</label>
<whatsthis>Set the BIBINPUTS environment variable here. BIBINPUTS should be a colon-separated list of all paths bibtex should look for additional .bib files. You do not have to add :$BIBINPUTS at the end.</whatsthis>
<default></default>
</entry>
<entry name="PreviewBibInputPaths" type="String">
<label>Holds the BIBINPUTS environment variable for QuickPreview tools.</label>
<whatsthis>Set the BIBINPUTS environment variable for QuickPreview tools here. BIBINPUTS should be a colon-separated list of all the paths where the bibliography tool (e.g. BibTeX or Biber) should look for additional packages and/or files. You do not have to add :$BIBINPUTS at the end.</whatsthis>
<default></default>
</entry>
<entry name="BstInputPaths" type="String">
<label>Holds the BSTINPUTS environment variable.</label>
<whatsthis>Set the BSTINPUTS environment variable here. BSTINPUTS should be a colon-separated list of all paths bibtex should look for additional .bst files. You do not have to add :$BSTINPUTS at the end.</whatsthis>
<default></default>
</entry>
</group>
<group name="Show">
<entry name="BottomBar" type="Bool">
<label>Whether to show the bottom bar.</label>
<default>true</default>
</entry>
<entry name="BottomBarSize" type="Int">
<label>Height of the bottom bar.</label>
<default>200</default>
</entry>
<entry name="BottomBarIndex" type="Int">
<label>Which tab of the bottom bar to show.</label>
<default>0</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SideBarSize" type="Int">
<label>Width of the sidebar.</label>
<default>300</default>
</entry>
<entry name="SideBar" type="Bool">
<label>Whether to show the side bar.</label>
<default>true</default>
</entry>
<entry name="ShowDocumentViewer" type="Bool">
<label>Whether to show the document viewer.</label>
//FIXME strip the #label part of the source (not the target),
//somehow this is already done somewhere (by accident),
//bad to rely on it
tool->setMsg(KileTool::NeedSourceExists, ki18n("Could not find the LaTeX documentation at %1; please set the correct path in Settings->Configure Kile->Help."));
tool->setSource(parameter);
tool->setTargetPath(parameter);
tool->prepareToRun();
m_manager->run(tool);
}
void Help::helpKeyword()
{
//FIXME: we should have a better way to access the current view